Hackers iraníes falsificaron correos preelectorales de los Proud Boys, pero la actuación postelectoral real de este y otros grupos resultó más disruptiva

Si en las elecciones presidenciales de Estados Unidos de 2016 las operaciones de injerencia extranjera fueron protagonizadas por Rusia, en las de 2020 la atención estuvo en los hackers iraníes, por la novedad que suponían en un campo de operaciones donde igualmente actuaban rusos y chinos, cada cual persiguiendo sus intereses. En concreto, Teherán deseaba una derrota de Donald Trump para que su sucesor demócrata revirtiera el duro régimen de sanciones impuesto contra el régimen iraní. Pero esas actuaciones en el ciberespacio por parte de Irán, Rusia y China fueron poco eficaces debido a la mayor alerta de las agencias de seguridad e inteligencia norteamericanas. Al final esos intentos exteriores de desprestigiar la democracia estadounidense y de minar la confianza de los votantes en su sistema electoral se quedaron pequeños frente al daño causado por el propio caos interno.

Asalto al Capitolio, en Washington, el 6 de enero de 2021 [TapTheForwardAssist]

ARTÍCULO /  María Victoria Andarcia

Rusia siempre estuvo en el ojo de la seguridad estadounidense durante el año electoral de 2020, después de que quedara constatada su injerencia en las elecciones presidenciales de cuatro años antes. No obstante, aunque la principal preocupación siguió siendo Rusia y también se temía una ampliación de las operaciones de China, Irán se llevó los titulares de algunos avisos lanzados por las autoridades norteamericanas, probablemente por la facilidad con que pudieron atribuir a actores iraníes diversas actuaciones. A pesar de ese múltiple frente, el desarrollo de las votaciones no arrojó ninguna evidencia de que las campañas de desinformación extranjeras hubieran tenido efectividad. La rápida identificación de los agentes implicados y la reacción ofensiva por parte de los servicios de seguridad e inteligencia estadounidenses pudieron prevenir que se llegara a la situación de 2016. Como ha señalado el Atlantic Council, esta vez “la desinformación doméstica eclipsó la acción foránea”.

Dadas las directas consecuencias que la llegada de Joe Biden a la Casa Blanca puede suponer en la política de Washington hacia Irán, este artículo presta más atención a los intentos iraníes por afectar al desarrollo de las elecciones de Estados Unidos. La incidencia de las operaciones iraníes fue mínima y tuvieron un perfil menor que las desarrolladas por Rusia en 2016 (país que a su vez tuvo menos implicación que en esas anteriores elecciones).

Operaciones iraníes

En mayo y junio de 2020 se registraron unos primeros movimientos en cuentas de Microsoft, como más adelante revelaría la propia compañía. Un grupo iraní llamado Phosphorus había logrado tener éxito en acceder a cuentas de empleados de la Casa Blanca y del equipo de campaña para la reelección de Trump. Fueron unas señales iniciales de que Teherán estaba montando algún tipo de operación cibernética.

A comienzos de agosto, el director del Centro de Contrainteligencia y Seguridad Nacional, William Evanina, apuntaba a Teherán –también a Moscú y Pekín– de usar desinformación en internet para “influir en los votantes, desencadenar desorden y minar la confianza” ciudadana en el sistema. En relación a Irán afirmaba: “Evaluamos que Irán busca socavar las instituciones democráticas estadounidenses y el presidente Trump, y dividir al país ante las elecciones de 2020”. Añadía que los esfuerzos iraníes se centraban en la difusión de desinformación en las redes sociales, donde hacía circular contenido contra Estados Unidos. Evanina atribuía como motivación de estas acciones la percepción iraní “de que la reelección del presidente Trump resultaría en una continuación de la presión de Estados Unidos sobre Irán en un esfuerzo por fomentar un cambio de régimen”.

A raíz del debate entre Trump y Biden televisado el 29 de septiembre, Twitter eliminó 130 cuentas que “parecían originarse en Irán” y cuyo contenido, que había puesto en conocimiento del Buró Federal de Investigaciones (FBI), pretendía influir en la opinión pública durante el debate presidencial. La compañía solo ofreció cuatro ejemplos. Dos de las cuentas eran proclives a Trump: en una el usuario era @jackQanon (en referencia al grupo conspiratorio QAnon) y la otra expresaba apoyo a Proud Boys, una organización de extrema derecha con vínculos supremacistas a la que Trump había pedido “quedar en guardia y mantenerse alerta”. Las otras dos cuentas habían expresado mensajes pro Biden.

A mediados de octubre, el director de Inteligencia Nacional, John Ratcliffe, se refirió en rueda de prensa a la actuación cibernética de Irán y Rusia como una amenaza al proceso electoral. Según manifestó Ratcliffe, la operación iraní consistió primordialmente en una serie de correos electrónicos en los que se hacía creer que eran enviados por el grupo Proud Boys. Dichos correos contenían amenazas de fuerza física para quienes no votaran por Trump, y tenían como finalidad instigar violencia y dañar la imagen de este último, asociando su campaña con grupos radicales y con esfuerzos para intimidar a votantes. Curiosamente luego los Proud Boys adquirirían un gran protagonismo por ellos mismos en las concentraciones postelectorales en Washington y la toma del Capitolio.

Si bien el portavoz del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de Irán, Said Jatibzadeh, negó estas acusaciones recalcando que “para Irán es indiferente quien gana las elecciones de Estados Unidos”, las autoridades norteamericanas insistieron en su versión y la Oficina de Control de Activos Extranjeros del Departamento del Tesoro de Estados Unidos (OFAC) sancionó a cinco entidades iraníes por haber intentado socavar las elecciones presidenciales. Según el comunicado de la OFAC, el Cuerpo de la Guardia Revolucionaria Islámica y la Fuerza Quds usaron los medios iraníes como plataformas para esparcir propaganda y desinformación a la población estadounidense.

De acuerdo con la OFAC, la empresa iraní de comunicación audiovisual Bayan Gostar, habitual colaboradora de la Guardia Revolucionaria, había “planeado influir en las elecciones explotando los problemas sociales dentro de los Estados Unidos, incluida la pandemia de COVID-19, y denigrando a las figuras políticas estadounidenses”. La Unión de Radio y Tevisión Islámica de Irán (IRTVU), que la OFAC considera un brazo de propaganda de la Guardia Revolucionaria, y la Unión Internacional de Medios Virtuales “ayudaron a Bayan Gostar en sus esfuerzos por llegar a la audiencia estadounidense”. Estos medios “amplificaron narrativas falsas en inglés y publicaron artículos de propaganda despectivos y otro contenido dirigido a Estados Unidos con la intención de sembrar la discordia entre la audiencia estadounidense”.

Actuación postelectoral

Estados Unidos asegura que la injerencia iraní no se limitó a las elecciones, que se celebraron el 3 de noviembre (con un nivel de voto por adelantado y por correo sin precedentes), sino que siguió después en las semanas siguientes, intentando aprovechar el desconcierto existente por el cuestionamiento del resultado electoral mantenido por la Administración Trump. Días antes de Navidad, el FBI y la Agencia de Seguridad de Infraestructura y Ciberseguridad del Departamento de Seguridad (CISA) dieron a conocer que presuntamente Irán estaba detrás de una página web y de varias cuentas de redes sociales dirigidas a provocar más violencia contra varios funcionarios estadounidense. La página web titulada “Enemies of the People” contenía fotografías e información personal tanto de funcionarios como de personal del sector privado que tenían relación con el proceso de recuento y autentificación de los votos emitidos en las elecciones, en ocasiones enfrentados a las denuncias de fraude mantenidas por Trump y sus seguidores.

La actuación atribuida a Irán puede interpretarse como un modo de vengar el ataque aéreo con drones ordenado por Washington para asesinar en Irak a Qasem Soleimani, jefe de la Fuerza Qurds, por cuya muerte el 3 de enero de 2020 Teherán había jurado represalias. Pero sobre todo revela un esfuerzo continuo por parte de Irán de aliviar los efectos de la política de “máxima presión” de Estados Unidos impulsada por Trump. Dada la intención expresada por Biden durante la campaña electoral de cambiar la política exterior estadounidense hacia la República Islámica, ésta tendría la oportunidad de recibir un trato más laxo por parte de Estado Unidos si Trump perdía las elecciones presidenciales. Biden había indicado que si llegaba al poder cambiaría la política hacia Irán, posiblemente volviendo al acuerdo nuclear firmado en 2015 con la condición de que Irán respetara los límites de su programa nuclear acordados entonces. El Plan Conjunto de Acción Comprensiva (JCPOA, por sus siglas en inglés) fue considerado un hito en la política exterior del entonces presidente Barack Obama, pero luego la Administración Trump decidió no respetarlo por considerar que habían quedado fuera asuntos como el desarrollo de misiles de Irán y su injerencia militar en otros países de la región.

Pocos días antes de la toma de posesión del nuevo mandatario americano, el presidente iraní,  Hasán Rohaní, instó a Biden a levantar las sanciones impuestas a la República Islámica y volver al acuerdo nuclear de 2015. Irán espera que la Administración Biden tome los primeros pasos para compensar por las acciones del gobierno anterior y así avanzar hacia un posible entendimiento entre ambas naciones. La decisión de volver al acuerdo no se tomará de forma inmediata ya que Biden hereda un país dividido y tardará un tiempo revertir las políticas de Trump. Con las elecciones presidenciales iraníes acercándose en junio de este año, el gobierno de Biden gana tiempo para intentar una reformulación nada fácil, pues el contexto de Oriente Medio ha cambiado sustancialmente en estos últimos cinco años.

Narratives from the Kremlin, the Duma and nationalist media embellish Russia's history in an open culture warfare against the West

Russian media and politicians, influenced by a nationalist ideology, often use Russian history, particularly from the Soviet time, to create a national consciousness and praise themselves for their contributions to world affairs. This often results in manipulation and in a rising hostility between Russia and other countries, especially in Eastern Europe.

A colored version of the picture taken in Berlin by the Red Army photographer Yevgueni Jaldei days before the Nazi's capitulation

ARTICLE /  José Javier Ramírez

Media bias. Russia is in theory a democracy, with the current president Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin having been elected through several general elections. His government, nonetheless, has been accused of restricting freedom of opinion. Russia is ranked 149 out of 179 countriesin the Press Freedom Index, so it is no surprise that main Russian media (Pravda, RT, Sputnik News, ITAR-TASS, …) are strong supporters of the government’s version of history. They have been emphasizing on Russia’s glorious military history, notoriously since 2015 when they tried to counter international rejection of the Russian invasion of Crimea appealing to the spirit of the 70th World War II anniversary. On the other side, social networks are not often used: Putin lacks a Twitter account, and the Kremlin accounts’ posts are not especially significant nor controversial.

Putin’s ideology, often called Putinism, involves a domination of the public sphere by former security and military staff, which has led to almost all media pursuing to justify all Russian external aggressions, and presenting Western countries, traditionally opposed to these policies, as hypocritical and Russophobic. Out of the remarkable exceptions to these pro-government public sphere, we might mention Moscow Today newspaper (whose ideology is rather independent, in no way an actual opposition), and the leader of the Communist faction, Gennady Andreyevich Zyuganov, who was labelled Putin several times as a dictator, without too much success among the electorate.

Early period. Russian media take pride in having an enormously long history, to the extent of having claimed that one of its cities, Derbent, played a key role in several civilizations for two thousand years. However, the first millennium of such a long history often goes unmentioned, due to the lack of sources, and even when the role of the Mongolian Golden Horde is often called into question, perhaps in order to avoid recognizing that there was a time where Russians were subjected to foreign domination. In fact, Yuri Petrov, director of RAS Russian History Institute, has refused to accept that the Mongolian conquest was a colonization, arguing that it was a process of mixing with the Slavic and Mongolian elites.

Such arguments do not prevent TASS, Russian state’s official media, from having recognized the battle of Kulikovo (1380) as the beginning of Russian state history, since this was the time where all Russian states came together to gain independence. Similarly, Communist leader Zyuganov stated that Russia is to be thanked for having protected Europe from the Golden Horde’s invasion. In other words, Russian media have a contradictory position about the nation’s beginning: on one hand, they deny having been conquered by the Mongolian, or prefer not to mention such a topic; on the other, they widely celebrate the defeat of the Golden Horde as a symbol of their freedom and power. Similar contradictions are quite common in such an official history, dominated by nationalist bias.

Czarism. Unlike what might be thought, Russian Czars are held in relative high esteem. Orthodox Church has canonized Nicolas II as a martyr for the “patience and resignation” with which he accepted his execution, while public polls carried by TASS argued that most Russians perceive his execution as barbaric and unnecessary. Pravda has even argued that there has been a manipulation of the last Czar’s story both by Communists and the West (mutual accusations of manipulation between Russian and Western media are quite common): according to Pyotr Multatuli, a historian interviewed by Pravda, the last Czar was someone with fatherly love towards its citizens, and he just happened to be betrayed by conspirators, who killed him to justify their legitimacy.

But this nostalgic remembrance is not exclusive solely to the last Czar, there are actually multiple complimentary references to several monarchs: Peter the Great was credited by Putin for introducing honesty and justice as the state agencies principles; Catherine the Great for being a pioneer in experimentation with vaccines, and she was even the first monarch to have been vaccinated; Alexander III created a peaceful and strong Russia… Pravda, one of the most pro-monarchy newspapers, has even argued that Czars were actually more responsible and answerable to society than the USA politicians, or that Napoleon’s invasion was not actually defeated by General Winter, but by Alexander I’s strategy. The appreciation for the former monarchy might be due to the disappointment with the Soviet era, or in some way promoted by Putin, who since the Crimean crisis inaugurated several statues to honor Princes and Czars, without recognizing their tyranny. This can be understood as a way of presenting himself as a national hero, whose decisions must be obeyed even if they are undemocratic.

USSR. The Soviet Union is the most quoted period in the Russian media, both due to their proximity, and because it is often compared to today’s government. Perceptions about this period are quite different and to some extent contradictory. Zyuganov, the Communist leader, praises the Soviet government, considering it even more democratic that Putin’s government, and has advocated for a re-Stalinisation of Russia. Nonetheless, that is not the vision shared neither by Putin nor by most media.

Generally speaking, Russian media do not support Communist national policy (President Putin himself once took it as “inappropriate” being called neo-Stalinist). There is a recognition of Soviet crimes while, at the same time, they are accepted as something that simply happened, and to what not too much attention should be drawn. Stalin particularly is the most controversial character and a case of “doublethink”: President Putin has attended some events to honor Stalin’s victims, while at the same time sponsored textbooks that label him as an effective leader. The result, shown in several polls, is that there is a growing indifference towards Stalin’s legacy.

However, the approach is quite different when we talk about the USSR foreign policy, which is considered completely positive. The media praise the Russian bravery in defeating Nazi Germany, and doing it almost alone, and for liberating Eastern Europe. This praise has even been shown in the present: Russian anti-Covid vaccine has been given the name of “Sputnik V”, subtly linking Soviet former military technology and advancement to the saving of today’s world (the name of the first artificial satellite was already used for the news website and broadcaster Sputnik News). Moreover, Putin himself wrote an essay on the World War II where he argued that all European countries had their piece of fault (even Poland, whose occupation he justifies as politically compulsory) and that criticism of Russia's attitude is just a strategy of Western propaganda to avoid accepting its own responsibilities for the war.

This last point is particularly important in Russian media, who constantly criticize Western for portraying Russia and the Soviet Union as villains. According to RT, for instance, Norway should be much more thankful to Russia for its help, or Germany for Russia’s promotion of its unification. The reason for this ingratitude is often pointed to the United States and its imperialism, because it has always feared Russia’s strength and independence, according to Sputnik, and has tried to destroy it by all means. The accusations to the US vary among the Russian media, from Pravda’s accusation of the 1917 Revolution having been sponsored by Wall Street to destabilize Russia, to RT’s complaint that the US took advantage of Boris Yeltsin’s pro-Western policies to impose severe economic measures that ruined Russian economy and the citizens’ well-being (Pravda is particularly virulent towards the West).

What the European neighbours think. As in most countries, politicians in Russia use their national history mostly to magnify the reputation of the nation among the domestic public opinion and among international audiences, frequently emphasizing more the positive aspects than the negative ones. What distinguishes Russian media is the influence the Government has on them, which results in a remarkable history manipulation. Such manipulation has arrived to create some sort of doublethink: some events that glorify Russia (Czars’ achievements, Communist military success, etc.) are frequently quoted and mentioned while, at the same time, the dark side of these same events (Czars’ tyranny, Stalin’s repression, etc.) is ignored or rejected.

Manipulated Russian history is often incompatible with (manipulated or not) Western history, which has led to mutual accusations of hypocrisy and fake news that have severely undermined the relations between Russia and its Western neighbours (particularly Poland, whom Russia insists to blame to some extent for the World War II and to demand gratitude for the liberation provided by Russia). If Russia wants to strengthen its relationships, it must stop idealizing its national history and try to compare it with the Western version, particularly in topics referring to Communism and the 20th century. Only this way might tensions be eased, and there will be a possibility of fostering cooperation.

A separated chapter on this historical reconciliation should be worked with Russia's neighbours in Eastern Europe. Most of them shifted from Nazi occupation to Communist states, and now they are still consolidating its democracies. Eastern Europe societies have mixed feelings of love and rejection towards Russia, what they don't buy any more is the story of the Red Army as a force of liberation.

The inclusion of private investment and the requirement of efficient credits differ from the overwhelming amount of loans from Chinese state banks

The active role of China as lender to an increasing number of countries has forced the United States to try to compete in this area of “soft power”. Until last decade the US was clearly ahead of China in official development assistance, but Beijing has used its state-controlled banks to pour loans into ambitious projects worldwide. In order to better compete with China, Washington has created the US International Development Finance Corporation (USIDFC), combining the US Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) and with USAID’s Development Credit Authority (DCA).

▲ The US agency helped to provide clean, safe, and reliable sanitation for more than 100,000 people in Nairobi, at the end of 2020 [USIDFC]

ARTICLE /  Alexandria Casarano

It is not easy to know the complete amount of the international loans given by China in recent years, which skyrocketed from the middle of last decade. Some estimations say that the Chinese state and its subsidiaries have lent about US$ 1.5 trillion in direct loans and trade credits to more than 150 countries around the globe, turning China into the world's largest official creditor.

The two main Chinese foreign investment banks, the Export-Import Bank of China and the China Development Bank, were both established in 1994. The banks have been criticized for their lack of transparency and for blurring the lines between official development assistance (ODA) and commercial financial arrangements. To address this issue, Beijing founded the China International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDCA) in April of 2018. The CIDCA will oversee all Chinese ODA activity, and the Chinese Ministry of Commerce will oversee all commercial financial arrangements going forward.

An additional complaint about Chinese foreign investment concerns “debt-trap diplomacy.” Since the PRC first announced its “One Belt One Road” initiative in 2013, the Chinese government has steadily increased its investment in the developing world even more dramatically than it had in the early 2000’s (when Chinese foreign aid was increasing annually by approximately 14%). At the 2018 China-Africa Convention Forum, the PCR pledged to invest US$ 60 billion in Africa that year alone. The Wall Street Journal said of the PRC in 2018 that it was “expanding its investments at a pace some consider reckless.” Ray Washburn, president of the US Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), called the Chinese One Belt One Road initiative a “loan-to-own” program. In 2018, this was certainly the case with the Chinese funded Sri Lankan port project, which led the Sri Lankan government to lease the port to Beijing for a 99-year period as a result of falling behind on payments.

OPIC, founded in 1971 under the Nixon administration, was recommended for elimination in the Trump administration’s 2017 budget. However, following the beginning of the US-China trade war in 2018, Washington reversed course completely. President Trump’s February 2018 budget recommended increasing OPIC’s funding and combining it with other government programs. These recommendations manifested themselves in the Better Utilization of Investment Leading to Development (BUILD) Act, which was passed by Congress on October 5, 2018. The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) called the BUILD Act “the most important piece of U.S. soft power legislation in more than a decade.”

The US International Development Finance Corporation

The principal achievement of the BUILD Act was the creation of the US International Development Finance Corporation (USIDFC), which began operation as an independent agency on December 20, 2019. The BUILD Act combined OPIC with USAID’s Development Credit Authority to form the USIDFC and established an annual budget of US$ 60 billion for the new organization, which is more than double OPIC’s 2018 budget of US$ 29 billion.

▲ USIDFC‘s investment commitments by region for the FY 2020. The US$ 29.9 billion is only a fraction of the agency's budget [USIDFC]

According to the Wall Street Journal, OPIC “has been profitable every year for the last 40 years and has contributed US$ 8.5 billion to deficit reduction,” a financial success which can primarily be attributed to project management fees. As of 2018, OPIC managed a portfolio valued at US$ 23 billion. OPIC’s strong fiscal track record, combined with both the concept of government program streamlining and the larger context of geopolitical competition with China, generated bipartisan support for the BUILD Act and the USIDFC.

The USIDFC has several key new capacities which OPIC lacked. OPIC’s business was limited to “loan guarantees, direct lending and political-risk insurance,” and suffered under a “congressional cap on its portfolio size and a prohibition on owning equity stakes in projects.” The USIDFC, however, is permitted under the BUILD Act to “acquire equity or financial interests in entities as a minority investor.”

Both the USIDFC currently and OPIC before its incorporation are classified as Development Finance Institutions (DFIs). DFIs seek to “crowd-in” private investment, that is, attracting private investment that would not occur otherwise. This differs from the Chinese model of state-to-state lending and falls in line with traditional American political and economic philosophy. According to the CSIS, “The USIDFC offers [...] a private sector, market-based solution. Moreover, it fills a clear void that Chinese financing is not filling. China does not support lending to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and it rarely helps local companies in places like Africa or Afghanistan grow.”

In the fiscal year of 2020, the most USIDFC’s investments were made in Latin America (US$ 8.5 billion) and Sub-Saharan Africa (US$ 8 billion). Lesser but still significant investments were made in the Indo-Pacific region (US$ 5.4 billion), Eurasia (US$ 3.2 billion), and Middle East (US$ 3 billion). This falls in line with the USIDFC’s goal to invest more in lower and lower-middle income countries, as opposed to upper middle countries. OPIC previously had fallen into the pattern of investing predominantly in upper-middle countries, and while the USIDFC is still authorized legally to invest in upper-middle income countries for national security or developmental motives.

These investments serve to further US national interests abroad. According to the USIDFC webpage, “by generating economic opportunities for citizens in developing countries, challenges such as refugees, drug-financed gangs, terrorist organizations, and human trafficking can all be addressed more effectively.” Between 2002 and 2014, financial commitments in the DFI sector have increased sevenfold, from US$ 10 billion to US$ 70 billion. In our increasingly globalized world, international interests increasingly overlap with national interests, and public interests increasingly overlap with private interests.

Ongoing USIDFC initiatives

The USIDFC has five ongoing initiatives to further its national interests abroad: 2X Women’s Initiative, Connect Africa, Portfolio for Impact and Innovation, Health and Prosperity, and Blue Dot Network. In 2020, the USIDFC "commited to catalyzing an additional US$ 6 billion of private sector investment in global women's economic empowerment" uner the 2X Women's Initiative which seeks global female empowerment. About US$1 billion for this US$ 6 billion commitment has been specially pledged to Africa. Projects that fall under the 2X Women's Initiative include equity financing for a woman-owned feminine hygiene products online store in Rqanda, and "expanding women's access to affordable mortages in India."

Continuing the USIDFC’s special focus on Africa follows the Connect Africa initiative, under which the USIDFC has pledged US$ 1 billion to promote economic growth and connectivity in Africa. The Connect Africa initiative involves investment in telecommunications, internet access, and infrastructure.

Under the Portfolio for Impact and Innovation initiative, the USIDFC has dedicated US$ 10 million to supporting early-stage businesses. This includes sponsoring the Indian company Varthana, which offers affordable online learning for children whose schools have been shut down due to the Covid-19 crisis.

The Health and Prosperity initiative focuses on “bolstering health systems” and “expanding access to clean water, sanitation, and nutrition.” Under the Health and Prosperity initiative, the USIDFC has dedicated US$ 2 billion to projects such as financing a 200+ mile drinking water pipeline in Jordan.

The Blue Dot Network initiative, like the Connect Africa initiative, also invests in infrastructure, but on a global scale. The Blue Dot Network initiative differs from the aforementioned initiatives in being a network. Launched in November 2019, the Blue Dot Network seeks to align the interests of government, private enterprise, and civil society to facilitate the successful development of infrastructure around the globe.

It is important to note that these five initiatives are not entirely separate. Many projects fall under several initiatives at once. The Rwandan feminine products e-store project, for example, falls under both the 2X Women’s initiative and the Health and Prosperity initiative.

The two countries are greatly exposed to solar radiation and they already share electricity interconnectors

Spain was an early developer of solar energy, but it didn’t keep the pace with the required investments. The effort in renewables should mean a clear increase in installed capacity for solar energy. A partnership with Morocco, gifted with even stronger solar resources, could benefit both countries in producing and marketing this particular renewable energy. Spain and Morocco are about to have a third electricity interconnector.

ARTICLE / Ane Gil

Spain has a lot of potential in solar energy. Currently, its Germany who produces more photovoltaic electricity than Spain, Portugal or Italy in Europe. In fact, in 2019, Germany produced five times more solar energy than Spain (50 GW of installed capacity versus just 11 GW). This fact has little to do with the raw solar energy that the countries receive, considering that Spain is located in Southern Europe.

For how much solar irradiation Spain receives, the solar energy it produces is scarce. Up until 2013, the installed capacity for solar energy grew rapidly. However, since then, the country has fallen behind many other European countries in the development of capacity. The country initially had a leading role in the development of solar power, with low prices that encouraged a boom in solar power installed capacity. However, because of the 2008 financial crisis, the Spanish government drastically cut its subsidies for solar power and limited any future increases in capacity to 500 MW per year. Between 2012 and 2016, Spain was left waiting while other countries developed. The cost of this was high, seeing as Spain lost much of its world leading status to countries such as Germany, China and Japan.

However, as a legacy from Spain’s earlier development of solar power, in 2018 Spain became the first country in the world using concentrated solar power system (CSP), which accounts for almost a third of solar power installed capacity in the country. Nevertheless, in 2019, Spain installed 4,752 MW of photovoltaic solar energy, which situated Spain as the sixth leading country in the world. As of 2019, Spain has a total installed solar generation capacity of 11,015 MW: 8,711 of photovoltaic energy and 2,304 of solar thermal.

Photovoltaic solar (PV) energy is usually used for smaller-scale electricity projects. The devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that occurs naturally on semiconductors, converting it into usable electricity that can be stored in a solar battery of sent to the electric grid. Solar thermal energy (STE) capture is usually used for electricity production on a massive scale, for its use in the industry.

Low solar energy generated in Spain

By 2020, Spain national system has reached the maximum generation capacity ever recorded: 110,000 MW of wind energy, photovoltaic (PV), hydraulic, conventional thermal power (natural gas, coal, fuel oil), nuclear, etc. This amount of energy contrasts with the increasingly thin demand of power, which in 2019 was 40,000 MW (40 GW). According to the data published by Red Electrica de España, the renewable quota of energy amount to a total of 55,247 MW (55 GW out of 110 GW). This 55 GW is composed of 46% corresponding to wind energy, 16% are photovoltaic and the rest (38%) corresponds to other renewable technologies. During 2019, the national renewable production has been 97,826 GW-hour, which represents 37.5% of the kilowatt-hour that the country demanded last year (the remaining 62.5% has been produced in nuclear power plants or facilities that burn fossil fuels).

So, we can clearly see that the percentage of solar energy is extremely low (3,5% solar photovoltaic and 2% solar thermic of the total kilowatts-hour generated). Nevertheless, Spain has the capability to increase these numbers. According to a report on power potential by country published by the World Bank, Spain has a long-term energy availability of solar resource at any location (average theoretical potential) of 4.575 kilowatts-hour per square metre (kWh/m2). This potential is indicated by the variable of global horizontal irradiation (GHI) on the country, which will vary according to the local factors of the land. Furthermore, the power output achievable by a typical PV system, taking into consideration the theoretical potential and the local factors of the land (average practical potential) is 4.413 kWh, excluding areas due to physical/technical constraints (rugged terrain, urbanized/industrial areas, forests…) PV power output (PVOUT), power generated per unit of the installed PV capacity over the long-term, is an average of 1.93 kilowatt-hours per installed kilowatt-peak of the system capacity (kWh/kWp). It varies according to the season from 1.43 to 2.67 kWh/kWp. Finally, it’s worth mentioning that Spain’s electric consumption (balance of production and external trade) in 2019 was of 238 TWh (= 2,38 x1011 kWh).

Morocco’s solar energy plan

Africa is the continent that receives most solar irradiance, thus being the optimal continent to exploit solar energy. In this regard, Morocco is already aiming to take advantage of this natural resource. At first, this country launched a solar energy plan with investment of USD 9 billion, aiming to generate 2,000 MW (or 2 GW) of solar power by 2020. It has developed mega-scale solar power projects at five locations; at the Sahara (Laayoune), Western Sahara (Boujdour), South of Agadir (Tarfaya), Ain Beni Mathar and Ouarzazate. But Morocco is planning to go further. Morocco announced during COP21 that it planned to increase the renewables capacity to reach 52% of the total by 2030 (20% solar, 20% wind, 12% hydro). To meet the 2030 target, the country aims to add around 10 GW of renewable capacities between 2018 and 2030, consisting of 4,560 MW of solar, 4,200 MW of wind, and 1,330 MW of hydropower capacity. The Moroccan Agency for Renewable Energy revealed that by the end of 2019, Morocco’s renewable energy reached 3,685 megawatts (MW), including 700 MW of solar energy, 1,215 MW of wind power, and 1,770 MW of hydroelectricity.

Now, what would happen if Spain partnered up with Morocco? Morocco is the only African country to have a power cable link to Europe. In fact, it’s through Spain that these two electricity interconnectors arrive to Europe. The first subsea interconnection, with a technical capacity of 700 MW, was commissioned in 1997 and started commercial operation in 1998. The second was commissioned in the summer of 2016. Furthermore, a new interconnection had been commissioned. This should not only reduce the price of electricity in the Spanish market but it should also allow the integration of renewable energy, mainly photovoltaic, into European electricity system.

Moreover, Red Electrica de España (REE) stated that a collaborations agreement between the Spain and Morocco had been formed “to establish a strategic partnership on energy, whose objectives will be focused on the integration of networks and energy markets, the development of renewable energy and energy efficiency.” But the possibilities don’t stop there. If both countries further develop their solar energy capacities, they could jointly provide enough electricity to sustain Europe, through sustainable and renewable resources.

Behind the tension between Qatar and its neighbors is the Qatari ambitious foreign policy and its refusal to obey

Recent diplomatic contacts between Qatar and Saudi Arabia have suggested the possibility of a breakthrough in the bitter dispute held by Qatar and its Arab neighbors in the Gulf since 2017. An agreement could be within reach in order to suspend the blockade imposed on Qatar by Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain (and Egypt), and clarify the relations the Qataris have with Iran. The resolution would help Qatar hosting the 2022 FIFA World Cup free of tensions. This article gives a brief context to understand why things are the way they are.

▲ Ahmad Bin Ali Stadium, one of the premises for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar

ARTICLE / Isabelle León

The diplomatic crisis in Qatar is mainly a political conflict that has shown how far a country can go to retain leadership in the regional balance of power, as well as how a country can find alternatives to grow regardless of the blockade of neighbors and former trading partners. In 2017, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain broke diplomatic ties with Qatar and imposed a blockade on land, sea, and air.

When we refer to the Gulf, we are talking about six Arab states: Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. As neighbors, these countries founded the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981 to strengthen their relation economically and politically since all have many similarities in terms of geographical features and resources like oil and gas, culture, and religion. In this alliance, Saudi Arabia always saw itself as the leader since it is the largest and most oil-rich Gulf country, and possesses Mecca and Medina, Islam’s holy sites. In this sense, dominance became almost unchallenged until 1995, when Qatar started pursuing a more independent foreign policy.

Tensions grew among neighbors as Iran and Qatar gradually started deepening their trading relations. Moreover, Qatar started supporting Islamist political groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood, considered by the UAE and Saudi Arabia as terrorist organizations. Indeed, Qatar acknowledges the support and assistance provided to these groups but denies helping terrorist cells linked to Al-Qaeda or other terrorist organizations such as the Islamic State or Hamas. Additionally, with the launch of the tv network Al Jazeera, Qatar gave these groups a means to broadcast their voices. Gradually the environment became tense as Saudi Arabia, leader of Sunni Islam, saw the Shia political groups as a threat to its leadership in the region.

Consequently, the Gulf countries, except for Oman and Kuwait, decided to implement a blockade on Qatar. As political conditioning, the countries imposed specific demands that Qatar had to meet to re-establish diplomatic relations. Among them there were the detachment of the diplomatic ties with Iran, the end of support for Islamist political groups, and the cessation of Al Jazeera's operations. Qatar refused to give in and affirmed that the demands were, in some way or another, a violation of the country's sovereignty.

A country that proves resilient

The resounding blockade merited the suspension of economic activities between Qatar and these countries. Most shocking was, however, the expulsion of the Qatari citizens who resided in the other GCC states. A year later, Qatar filed a complaint with the International Court of Justice on grounds of discrimination. The court ordered that the families that had been separated due to the expulsion of their relatives should be reunited; similarly, Qatari students who were studying in these countries should be permitted to continue their studies without any inconvenience. The UAE issued an injunction accusing Qatar of halting the website where citizens could apply for UAE visas as Qatar responded that it was a matter of national security. Between accusations and statements, tensions continued to rise and no real improvement was achieved.

At the beginning of the restrictions, Qatar was economically affected because 40% of the food supply came to the country through Saudi Arabia. The reduction in the oil prices was another factor that participated on the economic disadvantage that situation posed. Indeed, the market value of Qatar decreased by 10% in the first four weeks of the crisis. However, the country began to implement measures and shored up its banks, intensified trade with Turkey and Iran, and increased its domestic production. Furthermore, the costs of the materials necessary to build the new stadiums and infrastructure for the 2022 FIFA World Cup increased; however, Qatar started shipping materials through Oman to avoid restrictions of UAE and successfully coped with the status quo.

This notwithstanding, in 2019, the situation caused almost the rupture of the GCC, an alliance that ultimately has helped the Gulf countries strengthen economic ties with European Countries and China. The gradual collapse of this organization has caused even more division between the blocking countries and Qatar, a country that hosts the largest military US base in the Middle East, as well as one of Turkey, which gives it an upper hand in the region and many potential strategic alliances.

The new normal or the beginning of the end?

Currently, the situation is slowly opening-up. Although not much progress has been made through traditional or legal diplomatic means to resolve this conflict, sports diplomacy has played a role. The countries have not yet begun to commercialize or have allowed the mobility of citizens, however, the event of November 2019 is an indicator that perhaps it is time to relax the measures. In that month, Qatar was the host of the 24th Arabian Gulf Cup tournament in which the Gulf countries participated with their national soccer teams. Due to the blockade, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain had boycotted the championship; however, after having received another invitation from the Arabian Gulf Cup Federation, the countries decided to participate and after three years of tensions, sent their teams to compete. The sporting event was emblematic and demonstrated how sport may overcome differences.

Moreover, recently Saudi Arabia has given declarations that the country is willing to engage in the process to lift-up the restrictions. This attitude toward the conflict means, in a way, improvement despite Riyadh still claims the need to address the security concerns that Qatar generates and calls for a commitment to the solution. As negotiations continue, there is a lot of skepticism between the parties that keep hindering the path toward the resolution.  

Donald Trump’s administration recently reiterated its cooperation and involvement in the process to end Qatar's diplomatic crisis. Indeed, US National Security Adviser Robert O’Brien stated that the US hopes in the next two months there would be an air bridge that will allow the commercial mobilization of citizens. The current scenario might be optimistic, but still, everything has remained in statements as no real actions have been taken. This participation is within the US strategic interest because the end of this rift can signify a victorious situation to the US aggressive foreign policy toward Iran and its desire to isolate the country. This situation remains a priority in Trump’s last days in office. Notwithstanding, as the transition for the administration of Joe Biden begins, it is believed that he would take a more critical approach on Saudi Arabia and the UAE, pressuring them to put an end to the restrictions.

This conflict has turned into a political crisis of retention of power or influence over the region. It is all about Saudi Arabia’s dominance being threatened by a tiny yet very powerful state, Qatar. Although more approaches to lift-up the rift will likely begin to take place and restrictions will gradually relax, this dynamic has been perceived by the international community and the Gulf countries themselves as the new normal. However, if the crisis is ultimately resolved, mistrust and rivalry will remain and will generate complications in a region that is already prone to insurgencies and instability. All the countries involved indeed have more to lose than to gain, but three years have been enough to show that there are ways to turn situations like these around.

La venta de GNL de EEUU a sus vecinos y la exportación desde países de Latinoamérica y el Caribe a Europa y Asia abre nuevas perspectivas

No depender de gaseoductos, sino poder comprar o vender gas natural también a países distantes o sin conexiones terrestres, mejora las perspectivas energéticas de muchas naciones. El éxito del frácking ha generado un excedente de gas que EEUU ha comenzado a vender en muchas partes del mundo, también a sus vecinos hemisféricos, que por su parte cuentan con más posibilidad de elegir proveedor. A su vez, el poder entregar gas en tanqueros ha ampliado la cartera de clientes de Perú y sobre todo de Trinidad y Tobago, que hasta el año pasado eran los dos únicos países americanos, aparte de EEUU, con plantas de licuación. A ellos se añadió Argentina en 2019 y México ha impulsado en 2020 inversiones para sumarse a esta revolución.

▲ Un carguero de gas natural licuado (GNL; en inglés: LNG) [Pline]

ARTÍCULO / Ann Callahan

Estados Unidos está conectado por gaseoducto únicamente con Canadá y México, pero está vendiendo gas por barco a una treintena más de países (España, por ejemplo, se ha convertido en un importante comprador). En 2019, EEUU exportó 47.500 millones de metros cúbicos de gas natural licuado (GNL), de los cuales la quinta parte fueron para vecinos americanos, de acuerdo con el informe BP 2020 sobre el sector.

Ocho países de Latinoamérica y el Caribe cuentan ya con plantas de regasificación del gas llegado en carguero en estado líquido: existen tres plantas en México y en Brasil; dos en Argentina, Chile, Jamaica y Puerto Rico, y una en Colombia, República Dominicana y Panamá, según el resumen anual la asociación de países importadores de GNL. A esos países el GNL llega, además desde EEUU, también desde Noruega, Rusia, Angola, Nigeria o Indonesia. Por su parte, dos países exportan GNL a diversas partes del mundo: Trinidad y Tobago, que cuenta con tres plantas de licuación, y Perú, que tiene una (otra entró operativa en Argentina en el último año).

En un intento por mitigar el riesgo de escasez de electricidad debido a un descenso de producción hidroeléctrica por sequía o a otras dificultades de acceso a fuentes energéticas, muchos países de Latinoamérica y el Caribe están recurriendo al GNL. Siendo además una energía más limpia, supone también un atractivo para países que ya están luchando contra el cambio climático. Asimismo, el gas ayuda a superar la discontinuidad de fuentes alternativas, como la eólica o la solar.

En el caso de pequeños países insulares, como los caribeños, que en su mayor parte carecen de fuentes de energía, los programas de cooperación para el desarrollo de terminales de GNL pueden aportarles una cierta independencia respecto a determinados suministros petroleros, como la influencia que sobre ellos ejerció la Venezuela chavista a través de Petrocaribe.

El GNL es un gas natural que ha sido licuado (enfriado a unos -162° C) para su almacenamiento y transporte. El volumen del gas natural en estado líquido se reduce aproximadamente 600 veces en comparación con su estado gaseoso. El proceso hace posible y eficiente su transporte a lugares a los que no llegan los gaseoductos. También es mucho más respetuoso con el medio ambiente, ya que la intensidad de carbono del gas natural es alrededor de un 30% menos que la del diésel u otros combustibles pesados.

El mercado mundial del gas natural ha evolucionado rápidamente en los últimos años. Se espera que las capacidades mundiales de GNL continúen creciendo hasta 2035, encabezadas por Catar, Australia y EEUU. Según el informe de BP sobre el sector, en 2019 la proporción de gas en la energía primaria alcanzó un máximo histórico del 24,2%. Gran parte del crecimiento de la producción de gas en 2019, año en que aumentó en un 3,4%, se debió a las exportaciones adicionales de GNL. Así, el año pasado las exportaciones de GNL crecieron en un 12,7%, hasta alcanzar los 485.100 millones de metros cúbicos.

Plantas de licuación y regasificación en América [Informe GIIGNL]

Auge

Mientras que al comienzo de la primera década de este siglo Estados Unidos se quedó atrás en la producción gasística, el auge del esquisto desde 2009 ha llevado a EEUU a aumentar de forma exponencial la extracción de gas y a desempeñar un papel fundamental en el comercio mundial del producto licuado. Con el transporte relativamente fácil del GNL, EEUU ha podido exportarlo y enviarlo muchos lugares del mundo, siendo América Latina, por su proximidad, una de las regiones que más están notando ese cambio. De los 47.500 millones de metros cúbicos de GNL exportados por EEUU en 2019, 9.700 millones fueron para Latinoamérica; los principales destinos fueron México (3.900 millones), Chile (2.300), Brasil (1.500) y Argentina (1.000).

Si bien la región tiene un potencial de exportación prometedor, dadas sus reservas probadas de gas natural, su demanda supera la producción y debe importar. Venezuela es el país con mayores reservas en Latinoamérica (aunque su potencia gasística es menor que la petrolera), pero su sector de hidrocarburos está en declive y la mayor producción en 2019 correspondió a Argentina, un país emergente en esquisto, seguido de Trinidad y Tobago. Brasil igualó la producción de Venezuela, y luego siguieron Bolivia, Perú y Colombia. En total, la región produjo 207.600 millones de metros cúbicos, mientras que su consumo fue de 256.100 millones.

Algunos países reciben gas por gaseoducto, como es el caso de México y de Argentina y Brasil: el primero recibe gas de EEUU y los segundos de Bolivia. Pero la opción en auge es instalar plantas de regasificación para recibir gas licuado; esos proyectos requieren cierta inversión, normalmente extranjera. El mayor exportador de GNL a la región en 2019 fue EEUU, seguido de Trinidad y Togado, que por su bajo consumo doméstico prácticamente exporta toda su producción: de sus 17.000 millones de metros cúbicos de GNL, 6.100 fueron para países latinoamericanos. El tercer país exportador es Perú, que destinó sus 5.200 millones de metros cúbicos a Asia y Europa (no vendió en el propio continente). A las exportaciones en 2019 se sumó por primera vez Argentina, aunque con una baja cantidad, 120 millones de metros cúbicos, casi todos destinados a Brasil.

La región importó en 2019 un total de 19.700 millones de metros cúbicos de GNL. Los principales compradores fueron México (6.600 millones de metros cúbicos), Chile (3.300 millones), Brasil (3.200) y Argentina (1.700).

Algunos de los que importaron cantidades más reducidas luego reexportaron parte de los suministros, como hicieron República Dominicana, Jamaica y Puerto Rico, en general con Panamá como principal destino.

Tablas extraídas del informe Statistical Review of World Energy 2020 [BP]

Por países

México es el mayor importador de GNL de América Latina; sus suministros proceden sobre todo de EEUU. Durante mucho tiempo, México ha dependido de los envíos de gas de su vecino del norte llegados a través de gaseoductos. Sin embargo, el desarrollo del GNL ha abierto nuevas perspectivas, pues la ubicación del país le puede ayudar a impulsar ambas capacidades: la mejora de sus conexiones por gaseoducto con EEUU le puede permitir a México disponer de un surplus de gas en terminales del Pacífico para la reexportación de GNL a Asia, complementando la ausencia por ahora de plantas de licuación en la costa oeste estadounidense.

La posibilidad de reexportar desde la costa pacífica mexicana al gran y creciente mercado del GNL de Asia –sin necesidad, por tanto, de que los tanqueros tengan que atravesar el Canal de Panamá– supone un gran atractivo. El Departamento de Energía de EEUU concedió a comienzos de 2019 dos autorizaciones al proyecto Energía Costa Azul de México para reexportar gas natural derivado de EEUU en forma de GNL a aquellos países que no tienen un acuerdo de libre comercio (TLC) con Washington, según se recoge en el informe de 2020 del Grupo Internacional de Importadores de Gas Natural Licuado (GIIGNL).

Durante la última década, Argentina ha estado importando GNL de EEUU; sin embargo, en años recientes ha reducido sus compras en más de un 20% al haber aumentado la producción nacional de gas gracias a la explotación de Vaca Muerta. Esos yacimientos han permitido también reducir las compras de gas a la vecina Bolivia y vender más gas, igualmente por gaseoducto, a sus también vecinos Chile y Brasil. Además, en 2019 comenzó exportaciones de GNL desde la planta de Bahía Blanca.

Con el bombeo de gas de Argentina a su vecino Chile, en 2019 las importaciones chilenas de GNL disminuyeron a su grado más bajo en tres años, aunque sigue siendo uno de los compradores importantes de América Latina, que ha cambiado Trinidad y Tobago por EEUU como proveedor preferente. Cabe señalar, sin embargo, que la capacidad de las exportaciones de Argentina depende de los niveles de los flujos internos, especialmente durante las temporadas de invierno, en las que la calefacción generalizada es una necesidad para los argentinos.

En el último decenio, la importación de GNL por parte del Brasil ha variado significativamente de un año a otro. No obstante, se proyecta que será más consistente en la dependencia del GNL por lo menos hasta la próxima década, mientras se desarrollan energía renovables. En Brasil, el gas natural se utiliza en gran medida como refuerzo de la energía hidroeléctrica brasileña.

Además de Brasil, Colombia también considera el GNL como un recurso ventajoso para respaldar su sistema hidroeléctrico en períodos bajos. En su costa pacífica, Colombia está planeando actualmente un segundo terminal de regasificación. Ecopetrol, la empresa estatal de hidrocarburos, destinará 500 millones de dólares a proyectos no convencionales de gas, además de petróleo. Junto con la autorización del gobierno para permitir el frácking, se proyecta que las reservas actualmente estancadas se incrementen.​

Bolivia también posee un importante potencial de producción de gas natural y es el país de la región cuya economía es más dependiente de este sector. Tiene la ventaja de la infraestructura ya existente y el tamaño de los mercados de gas vecinos; no obstante, se enfrenta a la competencia de producción de Argentina y Brasil. Asimismo, al ser un país sin acceso al mar queda limitado en la comercialización de GNL.

Aunque Perú es el séptimo país en producción de gas natural de la región, se ha convertido en el segundo exportador de GNL. El menor consumo interno, comparado con otros mercados vecinos, le ha llevado a desarrollar la exportación de GNL, reforzando su perfil de nación enfocada hacia Asia.

Por su parte, Trinidad y Tobago, ha acomodado su producción gasística a su condición de país insular, por lo que basa su exportación de hidrocarburos mediante tanqueros, lo que le da acceso a mercados distantes. Es el primer exportador de la región y el único que tiene clientes en todos los continent

As the United States considers moving its AFRICOM from Germany, the relocation to US Navy Station Rota in Spain offers some opportunities and benefits

The United States is considering moving its Africa Command (USAFRICOM) to a place closer to Africa and the US base in Rota, Spain, in one of the main alternatives. This change in location would undoubtedly benefit Spain, but especially the United States, we argue. Over the past years, there has been a ‘migration’ of US troops from Europe, particularly stationed in Germany, to their home country or other parts of the hemisphere. In this trend, it has been considered to move AFRICOM from “Kelly Barracks,” in Stuttgart, Germany, to Rota, located in the province of Cádiz, near the Gibraltar Strait.

▲ Entrance to the premises of the US Navy Station Rota [US DoD]

ARTICLE / José Antonio Latorre

The US Africa Command is the military organization committed to further its country’s interests in the African continent. Its main goal is to disrupt and neutralize transnational threats, protect US personnel and facilities, prevent and mitigate conflict, and build defense capability and capacity in order to promote regional stability and prosperity, according to the US Department of Defense. The command currently participates in operations, exercises and security cooperation efforts in 53 African countries, compromising around 7,200 active personnel in the continent. Its core mission is to assist African countries to strengthen defense capabilities that address security threats and reduce threats to US interests, as the command declares. In summary, USAFRICOM “is focused on building partner capacity and develops and conducts its activities to enhance safety, security and stability in Africa. Our strategy entails an effective and efficient application of our allocated resources, and collaboration with other U.S. Government agencies, African partners, international organizations and others in addressing the most pressing security challenges in an important region of the world.” The headquarters are stationed in Stuttgart, Germany, more than 1,500 kilometers away from Africa. The United States has considered to move the command multiple times for logistical and strategic reasons, and it might be the time the government takes the decision.

Bilateral relations between Spain and the United States

When it comes to the possible relocation of AFRICOM, the main competitor is Italy, with its military base in Sigonella. An ally that has been increasingly important to the United States is Morocco, which has offered to accommodate more military facilities as its transatlantic ally continues to provide the North African country with weapons and armament. However, it is important to remember that the United States and Spain cooperate in NATO, fortifying their security and defense relations in the active participation in international missions. Although Italy also belongs to the same organizations, it is important to emphasize the strategic advantages of placing the command in Rota as opposed to in Sigonella: Rota it is a key point which controls the Strait of Gibraltar and contains much of the needed resources for the relocation. Spain combines the fact that it is a European Union and NATO member, while it has territories in Africa and shares key interests in the region due to multiple current and historical reasons. Spain acts as the bridge with Northern Africa in the West. This is an argument that neither Morocco nor Italy can offer.

The relations between Spain and the United States are regulated by the Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement and Agreement on Defense Cooperation (1988), following the Military Facilities in Spain: Agreement Between the United States and Spain Pact (1953), enacted to formalize the alliance in common objectives and where Spain permits the United States to use facilities in its territory. There are two US military bases in Spanish territory: US Air Force Base Morón and US Naval Station Rota. Both locations are strategic as they are in the south, essential for their proximity to the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea and, particularly, to Africa. Although it is true that Morocco offers the same strategic advantages as Rota, it is important to take into account the similarities in culture, the Western point of view, the shared strategies in NATO, and the shared democratic and societal values that the Spanish alternative offers. The political stability that Spain can offer as part of the European Union and as a historical ally to the United States is not comparable with Morocco’s.

If a relocation is indeed in the interest of the United States, then Spain is the ideal country for the placement of the command. Since the consideration is on the Naval Station in Rota, then the article will evidently focus on this location.

Rota as the ideal candidate

Rota Naval Station was constructed in 1953 to heal bilateral relations between both countries. It was placed in the most strategic position in Spain, and one of the most in Europe. Naval Station Rota is home to Commander, Naval Activities Spain (COMNAVACT), responsible for US Naval Activities in Spain and Portugal. It reports directly to Commander, Navy Region Europe, Africa and Southwest Asia located in Naples, Italy. There are around 3,000 US citizens in the station, a number expected to increase by approximately 2,000 military personnel and dependents due to the rotation of “Aegis” destroyers.

Currently, the station provides support for NATO and US ships as well as logistical and tactical aid to US Navy and US Air Force units. Rota is key for military operations in the European theatre, but obviously unique to interests in Africa. To emphasize the importance of the facility, the US Department of Defense states: “Naval Station (NAVSTA) Rota plays a crucial role in supporting our nation’s objectives and defense, providing unmatched logistical support and strategic presence to all of our military services and allies. NAVSTA Rota supports Naval Forces Europe Africa Central (EURAFCENT), 6th Fleet and Combatant Command priorities by providing airfield and port facilities, security, force protection, logistical support, administrative support and emergency services to all U.S. and NATO forces.” Clearly, Naval Station Rota is a US military base that will be maintained and probably expanded due to its position near Africa, an increasingly important geopolitical continent.

Spain’s candidacy for accommodating USAFRICOM

Why would Spain be the ideal candidate in the scenario that the United States decides to change its USAFRICOM location? Geographically speaking, Spain actually possesses territories in Africa: Ceuta, Melilla, “Plazas de Soberanía,” and Canary Islands. Legally, these territories are fully incorporated as autonomous cities and an autonomous community, respectively.

Secondly, the bilateral relations between Spain and the United States, from the perspective of security and defense, have been very fluid and dynamic, with benefits for both. After the 1953 convention between both Western countries, there have been joint operations co-chaired by the Secretary General of Policy of Defense (SEGENPOL) of the Spanish Ministry of Defense and the Under Secretary General for Defense Policy (USGDP) in the United States Department of Defense. Both offices plan and execute plans of cooperation that include: The Special Operations “Flint Lock” Exercise in Northern Africa, bilateral exercises with paratrooping units, officer exchanges for training missions, etc. It is important to add to this list that Spain and the United States share a special relationship when it comes to officers, because all three branches (Air Force, Army, Navy) have exchange programs in military academies or bases.

Finally, when it comes to Spain, it must be noted that the fluid relationship maintained between both countries has created a very friendly and stable environment, particularly in the area of Defense. Spain is a country of the European Union, a long-time loyal ally to the United States in the fight against terrorism and in the shared goals of strengthening the transatlantic partnership. This impeccable alliance offers stability, mutual confidence and reciprocity in terms of Defense. The United States Africa Command needs a solid “host”, committed to participating in active operations in Africa, and there is no better candidate than Spain. Its historical relationship with the countries in Northern Africa is important to take into account for perspective and information gathering. The Spanish Armed Forces is the most valued institution in society, and it is for sure more than capable of accommodating USAFRICOM to its needs in the South of the country, as it has always done for the United States, however, this remains a fully political decision.

The United States’ position

Rota is an essential strategic point in Europe, and increasingly, in the world. The US base is well known for its support to missions from the US Navy and the US Air Force, and its responsibility only seems to increase. In 2009, the United States sent four destroyers from the Naval Base in Norfolk, Virginia, to Rota, as well as a large force of US Naval Construction units, known as “Seabees” and US Marines. It is also worth noting that NATO has its most important pillar of an antimissile shield in Rota, given the geographical ease and the adequate facilities. From the perspective of infrastructure, on-hand station services, security and stability, Rota is the ideal location of the USAFRICOM compared to Morocco.

Moreover, Rota is, and continues to be, a geographical pinnacle for flights from the United States heading to the Middle East, particularly Iraq and Afghanistan. Most recently, USS Hershel “Woody” Williams arrived in Rota and joined NATO allies in the Grand African Navy Exercise for Maritime Operations (NEMO) that took place in the Gulf of Guinea in the beginning of October of 2020. In terms of logistics, Rota is more than equipped to host a headquarters of the magnitude of USAFRICOM and it would be economically efficient to relocate the personnel and their families as the station counts with a US Naval Clinic, schools, a commissary, a Navy Exchange, and other services.

The United States has not made a formal proposition to transfer Africa Command to Rota, but if there is a change of location, it is one of the main candidates. As Spain’s Minister of Foreign Affairs González Laya stated, the possible transfer of USAFRICOM to Rota is a decision that corresponds only to the United States, but Spain remains fully committed with its transatlantic ally. González Laya emphasized that “Spain has a great commitment to the United States in terms of security and defense, and it has been demonstrated for many years from Rota and Morón.” The minister reminded that Spain maintains complicity and joint work in the fight against terrorism in the Sahel with an active participation in European and international operations in terms of training local armies to secure order. A perfect example of the commitment is Spain’s presidency of the Sahel Alliance, working for a secure Sahel under the pillars of peace and development.

In 2007, when USAFRICOM was established, it could have been reasonable to install the headquarters in Germany, but now geographical proximity is key, and what better country for hosting the command than Spain, which has territories in the continent. The United States already has a fully equipped military base in Rota, and it can count on Spain to guarantee a smooth transition. Spain’s active participation in missions, her alliance with the United States and her historic and political ties with Africa are essential reasons to heavily consider Rota as the future location of USAFRICOM. Spain has been, and will continue to be, a reliable ally in the war against terrorism and the fight for peace and security. Spain is a country that believes in democracy, freedom and justice, like the United States. It is a country that has sacrificed soldiers in the face of freedom and has stood shoulder to shoulder with its transatlantic friend in the most difficult of moments. As a Western country, both countries have been able to work together and achieve many common objectives, and this will only evolve. As the interests in Africa expand, it is undoubtedly important to choose the best military facility to accommodate the command’s military infrastructure as well as its personnel and their families. The United States, in benefit of its strategic objectives, would be making a very effective decision if it decides to move the Africa Command to Rota, Spain.

El comercio indio con la región se ha multiplicado por veinte desde el año 2000, pero es solo un 15% del flujo comercial con China

El rápido derrame comercial, crediticio e inversor de China en Latinoamérica en la primera década de este siglo hizo pensar que India, si pretendía seguir los pasos de su rival continental, tal vez podría protagonizar un desembarco similar en la segunda década. Esto no ha ocurrido. India ha incrementado ciertamente su relación económica con la región, pero está muy lejos de la desarrollada por China. Incluso los flujos comerciales de los países latinoamericanos son mayores con Japón y Corea del Sur, si bien es previsible que en unos años sean sobrepasados por los mantenidos con India dado su potencial. En un contexto internacional de confrontación entre EEUU y China, India emerge como opción no conflictiva, además especializada en servicios de IT tan necesarios en un mundo que ha descubierto la dificultad de movilidad por el Covid-19.

ARTÍCULO / Gabriela Pajuelo

Históricamente India ha prestado poca atención a Latinoamérica y el Caribe; lo mismo había ocurrido con China, al margen de episodios de migración desde ambos países. Pero el surgimiento de China como gran potencia y su desembarco en la región hizo preguntarse al Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) en un informe de 2009 si, tras ese empuje chino, India iba ser “la próxima gran cosa” para Latinoamérica. Aunque las cifras indias fueran a quedar por detrás de las chinas, ¿podía India convertirse en un actor clave en la región?

La relación de los países latinoamericanos con Nueva Delhi ciertamente ha aumentado. Incluso Brasil ha desarrollado una especial vinculación con India gracias al club de los BRICS, como lo puso de manifiesto la visita que el presidente brasileño Jair Bolsonaro hizo en enero de 2020 a su homólogo Narendra Modi. En las dos últimas décadas, el comercio de India con la región se ha multiplicado por veinte, pasando de los 2.000 millones de dólares en el año 2000 a los casi 40.000 de 2018, como constató el año pasado un nuevo informe del BID.

Ese volumen, no obstante, queda muy por debajo del flujo comercial con China, del que constituye solo un 15%, pues si los intereses indios en Latinoamérica han aumentado, en mayor medida lo han seguido haciendo los chinos. La inversión desde ambos países en la región es incluso más desproporcionada: entre 2008 y 2018, la inversión de India fue de 704 millones de dólares, frente a los 160.000 millones de China.

Incluso el incremento comercial indio tiene una menor imbricación regional de lo que podrían aparentar las cifras globales. Del total de 38.700 millones de dólares de transacciones en 2018, 22.700 corresponden a exportaciones latinoamericanas y 16.000 a importaciones de productos indios. Las compras indias han superado ya a las importaciones realizadas desde Latinoamérica por Japón (21.000 millones) y Corea del Sur (17.000 millones), pero en gran parte se deben a la adquisición de petróleo de Venezuela. Sumadas las dos direcciones de flujo, el comercio de la región con Japón y con Corea sigue siendo mayor (en torno a los 50.000 millones de dólares en ambos casos), pero las posibilidades de crecimiento de la relación comercial con India son claramente mayores.

No solo hay interés por parte de los países americanos, sino también desde India. “Latinoamérica tiene una fuerza de trabajo joven y calificada, y es una zona rica en reservas de recursos naturales y agrícolas”, ha señalado David Rasquinha, director general del Banco de Exportaciones e Importaciones de la India.

Última década

Los dos informes del BID citados reflejan bien el salto dado en las relaciones entre ambos mercados en la última década. En el de 2009, bajo el título “India: Oportunidades y desafíos para América Latina”, la institución interamericana presentaba las oportunidades que ofrecían los contactos con India. Aunque apostaba por incrementarlos, el BID se mostraba inseguro sobre la evolución de una potencia que durante mucho tiempo había apostado por la autarquía, como en el pasado habían hecho México y Brasil; no obstante, parecía claro que el gobierno indio finalmente había tomado una actitud más conciliadora hacia la apertura de su economía.

Diez años después, el informe titulado “El puente entre América Latina y la India: Políticas para profundizar la cooperación económica” se adentraba en las oportunidades de cooperación entre ambos actores y denotaba la importancia de estrechar lazos para favorecer la creciente internacionalización de la región latinoamericana, a través de la diversificación de socios comerciales y acceso a cadenas productivas globales. En el contexto de la Asian Century, el flujo de intercambio comercial y de inversión directa había incrementado exponencialmente desde niveles anteriores, resultado en gran medida de la demanda de materias primas latinoamericanas, algo que suele levantar críticas, dado que no fomenta la industria de la región.

La nueva relación con India presenta la ocasión de corregir algunas de las tendencias de la interacción con China, que se ha centrado en inversión de empresas estatales y en préstamos de bancos públicos chinos. En la relación con India hay una mayor participación de la iniciativa privada asiática y una apuesta por los nuevos sectores económicos, además de la contratación de personal autóctono, incluso para los niveles de gestión y dirección.

De acuerdo con el Gerente del Sector de Integración y Comercio del BID, Fabrizio Opertti, es crucial “el desarrollo de un marco institucional eficaz y de redes empresariales”. El BID sugiere posibles medidas gubernamentales como el incremento de la cobertura de acuerdos de comercio e inversiones, el desarrollo de actividades de promoción comercial proactivas y focalizadas, el impulso de inversiones en infraestructura, la promoción de reformas en el sector logístico, entre otras.

Contexto post-Covid

El cuestionamiento de las cadenas de producción globales y, en última instancia, de la globalización misma a causa de la pandemia del Covid-19, no favorece el comercio internacional. Además, la crisis económica de 2020 puede tener un largo efecto en Latinoamérica. Pero precisamente en este marco mundial la relación con India puede ser especialmente interesante para la región.

Dentro de Asia, en un contexto de polarización sobre los intereses geopolíticos de China y Estados Unidos, India emerge como un socio clave, se podría decir que hasta neutral; algo que Nueva Delhi podría utilizar estratégicamente en su aproximación a diferentes áreas del mundo y en concreto a Latinoamérica.

Aunque “India no tiene bolsillos tan grandes como los chinos”, como dice Deepak Bhojwani, fundador de la consultora Latindia[1], en relación a la enorme financiación pública que maneja Pekín, India puede ser el origen de interesantes proyectos tecnológicos, dada la variedad de empresas y expertos de informática y telecomunicaciones con los que cuenta. Así, Latinoamérica puede ser objeto de la “technology foreign policy” de un país que, de acuerdo con su Ministerio de Electrónica y IT, tiene ambición de crecer su economía digital a “un billón de dólares hacia 2025”. Nueva Delhi focalizará sus esfuerzos en influenciar este sector económico a través de NEST (New, Emerging and Strategic Technologies), promoviendo un mensaje indio unificado sobre tecnologías emergentes, como gobierno de datos e inteligencia artificial, entre otros. La pandemia ha puesto de relieve la necesidad que Latinoamérica tiene de una mayor y mejor conectividad.

Existen dos perspectivas para la expansión de la influencia india en el continente. Una es el camino obvio de fortalecer su existente alianza con Brasil, en el seno de los BRICS, cuya presidencia pro tempore India tiene este año. Eso debiera dar lugar a una vinculación más diversificada con Brasil, el mercado más grande de la región, especialmente en la cooperación científica y tecnológica, en los campos de IT, farmacéutico y agroindustrial. “Ambos gobiernos se comprometieron a expandir el comercio bilateral a 15.000 millones de dólares para 2022. A pesar de las dificultades que trajo la pandemia, estamos persiguiendo esta ambiciosa meta”, afirma André Aranha Corrêa do Lago, actual embajador de Brasil en India.

Por otro lado, se podría dar un esfuerzo mayor en la diplomacia bilateral, insistiendo en los lazos preexistentes con México, Perú y Chile. Este último país e India están negociando un acuerdo de comercio preferencial y la firma del Tratado Bilateral de Protección de Inversiones. También puede ser de interés un acercamiento a Centroamérica, que todavía carece de misiones diplomáticas indias. Son pasos necesarios si, marcando de cerca los pasos de China, India quiere ser la “next big thing” para Latinoamérica.

The increase in South Korean trade with Latin American countries has allowed the Republic of Korea to reach Japan's exchange figures with the region

Throughout 2018, South Korea's trade with Latin America exceeded USD 50 billion, putting itself at the same level of trade maintained by Japan and even for a few months becoming the second Asian partner in the region after China, which had flows worth USD 300 billion (half of the US trade with its continental neighbors). South Korea and Japan are ahead of India's trade with Latin America (USD 40 billion).

ARTICLE / Jimena Villacorta

Latin America is a region highly attractive to foreign markets because of its immense natural resources which include minerals, oil, natural gas, and renewable energy not to mention its agricultural and forest resources. It is well known that for a long time China has had its eye in the region, yet South Korea has also been for a while interested in establishing economic relations with Latin American countries despite the spread of new protectionism. Besides, Asia's fourth largest economy has been driving the expansion of its free trade network to alleviate its heavy dependence on China and the United States, which together account for approximately 40% of its exports.

The Republic of Korea has already strong ties with Mexico, but Hong Nam-ki, the South Korean Economy and Finance Minister, has announced that his country seeks to increase bilateral trade between the regions as it is highly beneficial for both. “I am confident that South Korea's economic cooperation with Latin America will continue to persist, though external conditions are getting worse due to the spread of new protectionism”, he said. While Korea's main trade with the region consists of agricultural products and manufacturing goods, other services such as ecommerce, health care or artificial intelligence would be favorable for Latin American economies. South Korean investment has significantly grown during the past decades, from USD 620 million in 2003, to USD 8.14 billion in 2018. Also, their trade volume grew from USD 13.4 billion to 51.5 billion between the same years.

Apart from having strong ties with Mexico, South Korea signed a Free Trade Agreement with the Central American countries and negotiates another FTA with the Mercosur block. South Korea would like to join efforts with other Latin American countries in order to breathe life into the Trans-Pacific Partnership, bringing the US again into the negotiations after a change of administration in Washington.

Mexico

Mexico and South Korea’s exports and imports have increased in recent years. Also, between 1999 and 2015, the Asian country’s investments in Mexico reached USD 3 billion. The growth is the result of tied partnerships between both nations. Both have signed an Agreement for the Promotion and Reciprocal Protection of Investments, an Agreement to Avoid Income Tax Evasion and Double Taxation and other sectoral accords on economic cooperation. Both economies are competitive, yet complementary. They are both members of the G20, the OECD and other organizations. Moreover, both countries have high levels of industrialization and strong foreign trade, key of their economic activity. In terms of direct investment from South Korea in Mexico, between 1999 and June 2019, Mexico received USD 6.5 billion from Korea. There are more than 2,000 companies in Mexico with South Korean investment in their capital stock, among which Samsung, LG, KORES, KEPCO, KOGAS, Posco, Hyundai and KIA stand out. South Korea is the 12th source of investment for Mexico worldwide and the second in Asia, after Japan. Also, two Mexican multinationals operate in South Korea, Grupo Promax and KidZania. Mexico’s main exports to South Korea are petrol-based products, minerals, seafood and alcohol, while South Korea’s main exports to Mexico are electronic equipment like cellphones and car parts.

Mercosur

Mercosur is South America’s largest trading economic bloc, integrated by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. With a GDP exceeding USD 2 trillion, it is one of the major suppliers of raw materials and agricultural and livestock products. South Korea and Mercosur launched trade negotiations on May 2018, in Seoul. Actually, the Southern Common Market and the Republic of Korea have been willing to establish a free trade agreement (FTA) since 2005. These negotiations have taken a long time due to Mercosur’s protectionism, so the Asian country has agreed on a phased manner agreement to reach a long-term economic cooperation with the bloc. The first round of negotiations finally took place in Montevideo, the Uruguayan capital, in September 2018. Early this year, they met again in Seoul to review the status of the negotiations for signing the Mercosur-Korea trade agreement. This agreement covers on the exchange of products and services and investments, providing South Korean firms faster access to the Latin American market. The Asian tiger main exports to South America are industrial goods like auto parts, mobile devices and chips, while its imports consist of mineral resources, agricultural products, and raw materials like iron ore.

Among Mercosur countries, South Korea has already strong ties with Brazil. Trade between both reached USD 1.70 billion in 2019. Also, South Korean direct investments totaled USD 3.69 billion that same year. With the conclusion of the trade agreement with the South American block, Korean products exported to Brazil would benefit from tariff eliminations, as would Korean cargo trucks, and other products going to Argentina. It would also be the first Asian country to have established a trade agreement with Mercosur.

Central America

South Korea is the first Asian-Pacific country to have signed a FTA with Central American countries (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama). According to Kim Yong-beom, South Korean Deputy Minister of Economy and Finance, bilateral cooperation will benefit both regions as state regulatory powers won’t create unnecessary barriers to commercial exchange between both. “The FTA will help South Korean companies have a competitive edge in the Central American region and we can establish a bridgehead to go over to the North and South American countries through their FTA networks”, said Kim Hak-do, Deputy Trade Minister, when the agreement was reached in November 2016. Also, both economic structures will be complimented by each other by encouraging the exchange between firms from both regions. They signed the FTA on February 21st, 2018, after eighth rounds of negotiations from June 2015 to November 2016 that took place in Seoul, San Salvador, Tegucigalpa and Managua. Costa Rica also signed a memorandum of understanding with South Korea to boost trade cooperation and investment. This partnership will create new opportunities for both regions. South Korean consumers will have access to high-quality Central American products like grown coffee, agricultural products, fruits like bananas, and watermelons, at better prices and free of tariffs and duties. Additionally, Central American countries will have access to goods like vehicle parts, medicines and high-tech with the same advantages. Besides unnecessary barriers to trade, the FTA will promote fair marketing, ease the exchange of goods and services, to encourage the exchange businesses to invest in Central America and vice versa. Moreover, having recently joined the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) as an extra-regional member, has reinforced the development of socio-economic projects around the region.

Opportunity

The Republic of Korea faces challenges related to the scarcity of natural resources, there are others, such as slower growth in recent decades, heavy dependence on exports, competitors like China, an aging population, large productivity disparities between the manufacturing and service sectors, and a widening income gap. Inasmuch, trade between Latin America and the Caribbean and the Republic of Korea, though still modest, has been growing stronger in recent years. Also, The Republic of Korea has become an important source of foreign direct investment for the region. The presence of Korean companies in a broad range of industries in the region offers innumerable opportunities to transfer knowledge and technology and to create links with local suppliers. FTAs definitely improve the conditions of access to the Korean market for the region's exports, especially in the most protected sectors, such as agriculture and agroindustry. The main challenge for the region in terms of its trade with North Korea remains export diversification. The region must simultaneously advance on several other fronts that are negatively affecting its global competitiveness. It is imperative to close the gaps in infrastructure, education and labor training.

La reactivación de la guerra en la excolonia deja a Madrid con poco margen de maniobra por la ola migratoria que llega al archipiélago canario

España no ha tenido nunca un fácil papel en el conflicto del Sáhara Occidental. Su salida de ese territorio norafricano se produjo en un contexto de prisa descolonizadora por parte de una ONU que luego ha preferido tomarse tiempo en el proceso. España se ha visto atascada entre la defensa de los derechos de los saharauis y la conveniencia de no perjudicar la complicada vecindad con Marruecos. Ahora que el Frente Polisario ha reabierto la guerra, con el fin de que algo se mueva internacionalmente en torno al conflicto, España se ve atada por crisis de la llegada de migrantes a Canarias, archipiélago situado frente a la línea divisoria de Marruecos y el Sáhara Occidental. He aquí un resumen de los últimos acontecimientos en la cuestión saharaui.

ARTÍCULO / Irene Rodríguez Caudet

El Frente Polisario ha declarado la guerra a Marruecos después de 29 años de paz. Esta organización, creada fundamentalmente para defender la independencia del Sáhara Occidental frente a España, representa una parte importante de la población saharaui que busca la autodeterminación de su pueblo.

El reino alauita, por su parte, reclama la soberanía sobre los territorios. Emprendió medidas que detonaron el reciente conflicto en el paso fronterizo de Guerguerat, donde unos manifestantes cortaron la carretera que une el Sáhara Occidental con Marruecos. Los militares marroquíes dispararon contra los asistentes a la concentración el 13 de noviembre y el Frente Polisario declaró el estado de guerra.

El Sáhara Occidental es un territorio en estado de descolonización desde 1960 bajo los auspicios de la ONU como parte de los procesos llevados a cabo durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX para poner fin a los imperios coloniales europeos. Este proceso prosiguió hasta 1975, año de la Marcha Verde, en la cual un ejército de 350.000 civiles marroquíes se adentró hacia la antigua colonia para reclamarla como suya, al lado de Mauritania. En ese momento, el Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y Río de Oro (Frente Polisario), dio inicio a una guerra de guerrillas que no encontraría un alto al fuego hasta 1991.

A pesar de los esfuerzos de Marruecos por poseer la antigua colonia española, los saharauis tienen proclamada su propia república desde 1976, la República Árabe Saharaui Democrática (también conocida bajo el acrónimo RASD), reconocida por varios estados —en total 84, aunque más de la mitad de ellos han cancelado, congelado o suspendido el reconocimiento dada la violación de sus obligaciones internacionales— y presidida por Brahim Gali.

Desde que España abandonó el territorio, la ONU ha dictado varias resoluciones que exigen la celebración de un referéndum de autodeterminación que marque el futuro del Sáhara Occidental como país independiente o proponga otras alternativas.

En este conflicto, las diferentes partes involucradas siguen distintas estrategias. Marruecos, por su lado, tiene la intención de prolongar el conflicto para poder consolidar su poder en territorio saharaui. No contempla la independencia de la excolonia española, sino que promueve planes de autonomía limitada en un proyecto de Acuerdo Marco conocido como la “tercera vía” para lo que considera sus provincias meridionales. Además, ocupa estas provincias militarmente, mediante pasos fronterizos, seis bases militares y con más de la mitad del territorio saharaui bajo su control.

Frustrado por la posición inmovilista de las Naciones Unidas, el Frente Polisario siempre ha contado con la amenaza de retomar el conflicto armado. La RASD solo consta de unos pocos territorios que estén completamente supervisados por ella —aproximadamente una cuarta parte del Sáhara Occidental— y ha obtenido menos reconocimiento mundial que el Frente Polisario como organización, al que la ONU admite como representante del pueblo saharaui.

La falta de nuevas propuestas más imaginativas procedentes de la ONU, junto con la actitud de las partes involucradas, en particular de la marroquí, han imposibilitado el avance hacia una solución satisfactoria del conflicto. La falta de progreso, sin embargo, no obedece únicamente a estas razones. También es necesario tener en cuenta los refugiados saharauis radicados en Tinduf, Algeria. Es la crisis humanitaria más larga de la historia, que lleva 45 años prolongándose y afecta a 173.600 refugiados, de los cuales muchos no han conocido otra vida.

La estrategia violenta, que imperó durante más de quince años, se dejó de lado en 1991 para mantener un alto el fuego y para pasar a tácticas de negociación que no están siendo muy fructíferas. Pese a los intentos de acuerdos pacíficos, a mediados de noviembre de este año, el Frente Polisario decretó el estado de guerra, poniendo fin a una paz que se mantuvo durante casi 20 años.

Marruecos reclama los territorios saharauis como suyos y llega al punto de incluirlos sin tapujos como parte de Marruecos en los mapas oficiales del Reino más recientes, semejantes a los de inicios del siglo XX, momento en el cual el país magrebí tenía el control sobre el Sáhara. Por esa razón, después de la colonización española y la posterior descolonización, Marruecos reclama la excolonia. Según expresan constantemente sus autoridades, las llamadas “provincias saharauis” siempre han estado bajo su soberanía.

El conflicto no solo enfrenta a Rabat con El Aaiún, sino que también involucra a las partes que apoyan a unos líderes o a otros. Por un lado, están los países árabes —Jordania, Arabia Saudí, Qatar, Emiratos Árabes Unidos o Kuwait— que apoyan a Marruecos, y por otra parte una nación, que a pesar de tener un deseo muy expreso de ejercer su propia soberanía y reclamar la legitimidad de la RASD, cuenta con pocos o ningún apoyo internacional.

En 2021, la MINURSO, la misión desplegada por la ONU para garantizar la paz y la celebración del referéndum de autodeterminación, cumplirá 30 años desde que empezó su despliegue; a día de hoy cuenta con 240 observadores, pero no ha visto coronado su objetivo. Los saharauis defienden que la tarea de la ONU no ha sido efectiva en ningún aspecto y que únicamente ha permitido el expolio marroquí de los recursos naturales del Sáhara. Tampoco se ha observado ningún avance respecto al referéndum de autodeterminación, y la falta de acción ha llevado al levantamiento del alto el fuego por parte del gobierno saharaui. El Frente Polisario ha optado ahora por emprender estas medidas dado que cada vez se hace más evidente la falta de avances de la misión de la ONU.

El país de Mohammed VI ha enviado efectivos para apaciguar las manifestaciones en las principales ciudades saharauis y en las vías de comunicación que conectan Marruecos con Sáhara Occidental. Mientras tanto, su contraparte asegura haber causado pérdidas materiales y humanas en las bases militares marroquíes situadas en territorio saharaui. Marruecos no reconoce ninguna de estas alegaciones, pero se defiende con uso de fuego frente a la amenaza del Frente Polisario.

Entre tanto, Dajla, la segunda ciudad más poblada del Sáhara Occidental, está sirviendo de corredor para pateras y cayucos, que en los últimos días llegan en multitud al puerto de Arguineguín, en Gran Canaria. Este hecho causa que Marruecos y España estén todavía más pendientes de la situación en el Sáhara y que tengan que afrontar este problema de forma conjunta, algo complicado debido a las históricas confrontaciones entre los dos países por el conflicto saharaui. Sin embargo, mientras unos están de paso, yéndose, otros vuelven a su tierra nativa: el Frente Polisario ha hecho un llamamiento a todos los saharauis que viven en territorio nacional y extranjero para unirse a la lucha.

La situación del Sáhara Occidental queda pendiente de nuevos desarrollos en el conflicto y de las decisiones que adopte Marruecos. Mientras hay posiciones internacionales que siguen reclamando la celebración de un referéndum de autoterminación, el statu quo acabar influyendo en la ONU para la aceptación de la propuesta de autonomía hecha por Marruecos. El gobierno español ha evitado pronunciarse a favor del plebiscito, aunque en esto hay división entre el PSOE y Podemos, formación que urge a la celebración de la consulta. Aunque la crisis migratoria de Canarias obedece a dinámicas más complejas, la sospecha de que Marruecos ha permitido la llegada de más refugiados en momentos decisivos del reabierto conflicto del Sáhara obliga a España a una actitud de cautela.