The bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of rutin, caffeic acid and rosmarinic acid were evaluated using three in nitro gastrointestinal digestion models: filtration, centrifugation and dialysis. At intestinal level, a significant degradation of all compounds was observed when results were expressed on concentration basis (mg/mg lyophilised sample), mainly due to the dilution effect that occurs during digestion. However, when results were expressed as absolute amounts (total mg in the digested fraction), this degradation was much lower, or even absent in the case of rutin. Moreover, bioaccessibility (in terms of total mg) was higher in filtration and centrifugation than in the dialysis method. A significant reduction of antioxidant activity was observed after intestinal digestion of the three standards, regardless of the method used. In conclusion, the methodology and units used to report results are two critical parameters to take into account in bioaccessibility studies.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Several plants have been found to have effective against number of ophthalmological problems in Navarra. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 686 informants in 267 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological application of the uses more cited by the informants, a literature review was conducted. RESULTS: A total of 57 pharmaceutical uses were reported, for 19 plants and 13 families, mainly represented by Asteraceae. The most frequently used parts were inflorescences, flowers, aerial parts, leaves and flowered aerial parts. The related affections fell into eleven categories: bloodshot eyes, watery eyes and wounds, improve vision, irrited eyelids, rheums and styes, tired eyes, conjunctivitis, eyewash, ocular problems in general. The most cited plants were: Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All., Santolina chamaecyparissus L. ssp. squarrosa (DC.) Nyman, Sambucus nigra L. ssp. nigra, Rosa agrestis Savi and Calendula officinalis L. None of them have been pharmacologically validated by Official International Organisms. From the therapeutic point of view, Allium sativum L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., C. officinalis, and S. chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa deserve special attention, because ethnobotanical and pharmacological studies suggest that these medicinal plants are effective for ophthalmological problems. CONCLUSIONS: The present study constitutes a good basis for further phytochemical

The cytotoxic effect of the aqueous extract from Verbena officinalis, was evaluated in vitro on DHD/K12/PROb rat colonic epithelial cell line and HCT-116 human colon adenocarcinoma cell line. In both cell lines, the IC50 values were lower than 20 mu g/mL after 72 h of treatment. Bioassay guided fractionation led to the isolation of 12 phenylethanoid glycosides with anti-proliferative activity, five of them are being reported for the first time. The new compounds were elucidated as 4 ''-acetyl-O-isoverbascoside, 2 '',4 ''-diacetyl-O-verbascoside, 3"',4"'-diacetyl-O-isoverbascoside, 4"',6 ''-diacetyl-O-betonyoside A and 3"',4"'-diacetyl-O-betonyoside A. The IC50 results suggest that antiproliferative activity is determined by not only the number of acetyl-groups but also their position in the aliphatic rings. Compounds exhibiting vicinal acetyl-groups in the sugar rings such as 3"',4"'-diacetyl-O-isoverbascoside and 3"',4"'-diacetyl-O-betonyoside A are particularly strong cytotoxic compounds against both cell lines. This investigation indicated that diacetyl-phenylethanoids might be valuable as cancer chemopreventive agents.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper provides important ethnopharmacological information on plants used in musculoskeletal disorders in Navarra. Material and methods: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses, monographs from Official International Agencies (ESCOP, Commission E, WHO and EMA) were reviewed. A literature review was conducted focusing on the plants that were widely used but had no published monograph. Results: A total of 199 pharmaceutical uses were reported, for 38 plants and 24 families, mainly represented by Asteraceae and Lamiaceae (11%, each), Rosaceae (8%) and Boraginaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Equisetaceae, Malvaceae, Oleaceae and Urticaceae (5%, each). The most frequently used parts were the aerial parts, roots, followed by inflorescences and leaves. Nine out of 38 plants (24%) and 123 uses (62%), had already been pharmacologically validated. Conclusions: The authors propose to validate four species for their use in musculoskeletal disorders: Verbena officinalis, Symphytum tuberosum, Hypericum perforatum and Equisetum ssp.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper provides important ethnopharmacological information on plants used in neurological and mental disorders in Navarra. Material and methods: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants in 265 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses claimed by the informants, monographs from Official International Agencies (ESCOP, Commission E, WHO and EMA) were reviewed. A literature review was conducted focusing on the plants that were widely used but had no published monograph.

Total phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents of dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, and aqueous extracts of branches, leaves and fruits from Prunus spinosa were quantified by spectrophotometrical methods and the results showed solvent and botanical organ dependence. In order to detect antioxidant activity, a method based on the reduction of DPPH was carried out. Activity of ethanol, ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts of branches demonstrated a higher scavenging capacity compared to other analysed extracts. Phytochemical analysis allowed detecting flavonoids, coumarins, phenolic acids and flavan-3-ols. Ethanolic extract of branches was subjected to an in vitro digestion. Buccal and gastric digestion had no substantial effect on any of the phenolic compounds. However, these compounds were significantly altered during intestinal digestion. The results showed that a significant proportion of these compounds would be transformed into other unknown and/or undetected structural forms. Furthermore, three phenolic acids, two coumarins, fourteen flavan-3-ols, and six flavonols were identified using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS.

Cholesterol oxidation products (COPS) constitute a known health risk factor. The antioxidant effect of a lyophilized aqueous Melissa officinalis extract against cholesterol degradation and COPs formation during a heating treatment was evaluated in a model system (180 degrees C, 0-180 min) at a ratio of 2 mg extract/100 mg cholesterol. Furthermore, the plant extract was subsequently added to beef patties alone or incorporated within an oil-in-water olive oil emulsion to assess its effectiveness during cooking. Melisa extract protected cholesterol from thermal degradation in the model system, yielding higher remaining cholesterol and lower COPs values throughout the whole heating process. Maximum total COPs were achieved after 30 and 120 min of heating for control and melisa-containing samples, respectively. In cooked beef patties, even though the olive oil emulsion was used as flavor-masking approach, melisa extract off-flavor limited the maximum dose which could be added. At these doses (65 mu g/g and 150 mu g/g without and with the emulsion, respectively), no additional protective effect of melisa over the use of the emulsion was found. Addition of natural extracts into functional foods should definitively take into account sensory aspects.

A study to establish relationship between the petal colour, extraction solvent, phenolic, flavonoid, anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity in three varieties of Viola × wittrockiana (yellow, red and violet) is reported in this article. Identification and quantification of flavonoids and anthocyanins using HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS is also presented. The antioxidant activity was studied by four different analytical assays: the measurement of scavenging capacity against ABTS+ and DPPH free radicals, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). The violet petals were the most active in all solvents employed for extraction and also showed higher total phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin content in comparison with red and yellow ones. Fourteen constituents were identified by HPLC coupled with diode-array detection (DAD) and mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), ten of them were flavonoids and four anthocyanins. The major compounds found in violet pansy were rutin, violanthin and violanin. Aqueous extract of violet pansy can be regarded as a suitable candidate to serve as a radical scavenging agent that could be used in functional foods.

Reduced-energy and reduced-fat Bologna products enriched with ¿-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were formulated by replacing the pork back-fat by an oil-in-water emulsion containing a mixture of linseed-algae oil stabilized with a lyophilized Melissa officinalis extract. Healthier composition and lipid profile was obtained: 85 kcal/100 g, 3.6% fat, 0.6 g ALA and 0.44 g DHA per 100 g of product and ¿-6/¿-3 ratio of 0.4. Technological and sensory problems were not detected in the new formulations. Reformulation did not cause oxidation problems during 32 days of storage under refrigeration. The results suggest it is possible to obtain reduced-fat Bologna-type sausages rich in ALA and DHA and stabilized with natural antioxidants, applying the appropriate technology without significant effects on the sensory quality, yielding interesting products from a nutritional point of view.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper provides significant ethnopharmacological information on plants used to treat cardiovascular diseases in Navarra, Spain. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants (mean age 72; 55.47% women, 44.53% men) in 265 locations. Official sources such as the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), German Commission E, World Health Organization (WHO), European Medicines Agency (EMA), European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) and Real Farmacopea Española (RFE) monographs were consulted in order to establish the therapeutic efficacy of the reported uses and to obtain further details about quality and safety aspects. A literature review was carried out on the plants that were most frequently cited and were not the subject of a monograph, using a new tool developed by the University of Navarra, UNIKA. RESULTS: A total of 460 pharmaceutical uses were reported by the informants, belonging to 90 plant species and 39 families, mainly represented by Urticaceae, Rosaceae, Asteraceae, and Equisetaceae. The most frequently used parts of the plants were the aerial parts followed by leaves and flowers. Seventeen out of 90 plants (19%) and 208 out of 460 popular uses (45%) had already been pharmacologically validated in relation to their therapeutic efficacy and safety aspects. CONCLUSIONS: The authors propose to validate five species for their use in cardiovascular diseases: Rhamnus alaternus L., Potentilla reptans L., Equisetum telmateia Ehrh., Centaurium erythraea Rafn and Parietaria judaica L.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper provides important ethnopharmacological information on plants used in respiratory affections in Navarra. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants in 265 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses claimed by the informants, monographs from Official International Agencies (ESCOP, Commission E, WHO and EMA) were reviewed. A literature review was conducted focusing on the plants that were widely used but had no published monograph. RESULTS: A total of 456 pharmaceutical uses was reported, for 79 plants and 34 families, mainly represented by Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Crassulaceae and Malvaceae. The most frequently used parts were the aerial parts followed by inflorescences and leaves. Twenty-two out of 79 plants (28%) and 270 of 456 uses (42%), had already been pharmacologically validated. CONCLUSIONS: The authors propose Verbena officinalis for validation.

BACKGROUND: This applied research was done in order to obtain cooked products (bologna sausages) with significantly lower amounts of energy, total fat and saturated fat and higher amounts of ¿-3 fatty acids than conventional ones. Two subsequent experiments were performed. RESULTS: Experiment 1 aimed at pork back-fat reduction and enabled sausages to be obtained with 84¿g¿kg-1 fat and 1334¿kcal¿kg-1 , without significant negative effects on sensory quality. Carrageenan was used as fat replacer. Experiment 2 aimed at improving the lipid profile of the 'energy-reduced' sausages previously developed, by a partial substitution of the pork back-fat with a linseed oil-in water emulsion (substitution levels: 25-100%). Using the 100% substitution level gave rise to products with 27¿g¿kg-1 ¿-linolenic acid, and low saturated fat content (13.5¿g¿kg-1 ), showing good sensory results regarding taste, smell and texture. The use of antioxidant maintained low TBARs (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) values in all formulations. CONCLUSION: It is possible to obtain cooked meat products (bologna sausages) with low energy, low saturated fat and a high amount of ¿-3 fatty acids simultaneously, applying a combination of the use of carrageenan, linseed oil emulsion and increment of water, without significant effects on sensory quality. Functional products, interesting from a nutritional standpoint, were achieved.

Anagallis arvensis L. and Anagallis foemina Mill. (Primulaceae) have been used in Navarra (Spain) as wound healing remedies within a context of traditional medicine. The species have previously demonstrated antimicrobial and COX-inhibiting properties. Cytotoxic effects of the plants have never been established though they are popularly known to be toxic at high doses and/or long term oral administration. Cytotoxicity was evaluated in PC12 and DHD/K12PROb cells using spectrophotometric methods such as the MTT and LDH assays. Both plants reduced cell survival and induced cell damage (LDH release) in a dose-dependent manner, PC12 cells being more sensitive to the extracts than DHD/K12PROb cells. Methanol extracts were significantly more cytotoxic and doses over 80 ¿g/ml reduced cell survival above 50%. Results suggest that these plants may be responsible for the toxic effects that have been described in traditional medicine.

Aim of the study: This paper provides significant ethnopharmacological information on plant used in dermatological affections in Navarra. Material and methods: Information was collected using semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants (mean age 72; 55.47% women, 44.53% men) in 265 locations. In order to confirm the pharmacological validation of the uses reports, the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), German Commission E, World Health Organization (WHO), European Medicines Agency (EMA), European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) and Real Farmacopea Espanola (RFE) monographs have been revised. A literature review has been carried out with the plants without monograph and high frequency citations, using a new tool of the University of Navarra, UNIKA. Results: A total of 982 pharmaceutical uses are reported from the informants, belonging to 91 plants and 42 families, mainly represented by Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Crassulaceae. The most frequently used parts of the plants are aerial parts followed by leaves and inflorescences. Seventeen out of 91 plants (19%) and 148 of 982 popular uses (15%), have already been pharmacologically validated. Conclusions: The authors propose seven species for their validation (Allium cepa, Sambucus nigra, Hylotelephium maximum, Chelidonium majus, Ficus carica, Allium sativum and Anagallis arvensis).

The effect of storage temperature (65 degrees C, 48 h) on the oxidative stability of a food-grade water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion was studied by comparison with an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. The emulsions were prepared with linseed oil or olive oil, and in each case, two antioxidants were evaluated, an aqueous Melissa lyophilized extract and BHA. Emulsions were characterized using bright field light microscopy and the oxidation was monitored by measuring the lipid hydroperoxides, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), conjugated dienes (CD) and trienes (CT), alpha-tocopherol and Lipophilic Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (L-ORACFL) Assay. A great stability of olive oil emulsions was observed, without noticing differences between antioxidants or type of emulsion. This behavior was not observed in linseed oil emulsions. In this case the lipophilic antioxidant (BHA) seemed to be more efficient delaying the lipid oxidation in W/O/W emulsions than the water Melissa extract while the opposite occurs in the O/W emulsion. The type of antioxidant is a key factor in controlling oxidation in W/O/W and O/W emulsions which are prepared with highly polyunsaturated oils, but not in the case of highly monounsaturated ones.

Introduction: To provide significant ethnopharmacological information on the plants used to treat digestive problems in the Navarra region of Spain. Materials and methods: Information was collected using semi-structured, ethnobotanical interviews with 667 informants (mean age 72; 55.47% women, 44.53% men) in 265 locations. Monographs from the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP), the German Commission E, the World Health Organization (WHO), the European Medicines Agency (EMA), the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) and the Real Farmacopea Espanola (RFE) were used to confirm and validate the pharmacological actions for the reported uses of these plants. In cases when frequently reported plants were not covered by a monograph, a literature review was performed using a new tool from the University of Navarra: the UNIKA database. Results: A total of 1214 pharmaceutical uses were reported by the informants of this study; these uses originated from 126 plants and 47 families and were mainly represented by Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Rosaceae. The most frequently used parts of the plants were the inflorescences, followed by the flowered aerial parts and fruits. Thirty-three out of 126 plants (26%) and 322 of their identified 1214 popular uses (27%), have already been pharmacologically validated. Conclusions: The authors propose that four species should be explored and validated (Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Jasonia glutinosa, Jasonia tuberosa and Prunus spinosa) because these species are frequently mentioned and show promise for therapeutic treatments.

A pre-emulsified mixture of linseed and algae oils (15/10) and stabilized with 686 ppm of a lyophilized water extract of Melissa officinalis, was successfully applied in dry fermented sausages to increase the ¿-3 PUFA content. The objective of this work was to evaluate the stability of this modified formulation during the storage and to compare it to that of a traditional formulation. Traditional and modified products were stored during 90 days at 4 ºC in aerobic conditions. Fatty acid profiles, TBARS and volatile compounds derived from oxidation were analyzed at 0, 30 and 90 days of storage. The fatty acid profiles did not significantly change along the storage period. The stabilizing effect of the natural antioxidants of M. officinalis could contribute to detect no losses of ¿-3 PUFA in Modified (30 days: 2.13 g/100 g of product, 90 days: 2.33 g/100 g of product), whereas in Control products a slightly significant reduction was detected (30 days: 0.34 g/100 g of product, 90 days: 0.29 g/100 g of product). After 90 days, the increases of TBARS and hexanal content were much higher in Control than in Modified (Control: 1.41 mg MDA/kg & 17,915 ng dodecane/kg of dry matter; Modified: 0.48 mg MDA/kg & 2,496 ng dodecane/kg of dry matter). In conclusion, the lyophilized water extract of M. officinalis protected high ¿-3 PUFA of dry fermented sausages from oxidation along the storage time, guaranteeing the nutritional improvements achieved with the modified formulation.

Context: Stem and leaves infusion of Chuquiraga spinosa (R&P) Don. (Asteraceae) is used in the Peruvian traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory properties and for the treatment of vaginal infections. Objective: This study evaluated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antifungal activities of C. spinosa for the first time. Materials and methods: Extracts of methanol, 50% methanol and water were obtained from C. spinosa aerial parts. Antioxidant activity of the extracts was evaluated (DPPH center dot E (TM), ABTS center dot E (TM)<SU++</SU and superoxide radical-scavenging activity). The correlation between these results and total polyphenolic content was determined by Pearson''s Correlation Coefficient. Anti-inflammatory activity of 50% methanol extract was evaluated with the rat model of carrageenan-induced acute inflammation and mouse model of TPA-induced acute inflammation. The antifungal activity of the extracts against Cladosporium cucumerinum and Candida albicans was studied by direct bioautography, and antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi was performed by culture in potato dextrose agar plates. Results: All the extracts showed high antioxidant activity, and there was correlation between the activity and total polyphenolic compounds. As 50% methanol extract was administered orally, the paw edema in rats was reduced significantly (52.5%). This extract, by topical administration, produced a reduction of 88.07% of the edema TPA-induced in ear of mice. The aqueous and 50% methanol extracts were active against C. albicans (minimum inhibitory concentration of 2.5 and 6.25 mu A mu g, respectively). The aqueous extract showed antifungal activity against C. cucumerinum (MIC: 2.5 mu A mu g). Discussion and conclusion: Preliminary phytochemical screening and the analysis of the three extracts by high-performance liquid chromatography diode-array detection showed the majority compounds are flavonoids and phenolic acid derivatives. These compounds may be responsible of the radical-scavenging activity of these extracts as well as responsible of anti-inflammatory effect in vivo of 50% methanol extract. Several authors have demonstrated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of some flavonoids and phenolic acids. The antifungal activity of the extracts obtained from aerial parts of C. spinosa has been investigated here for the first time. Other studies are necessary to determine the mechanism of action and to identify the bioactive compounds of this plant.

Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae) is consumed as a traditional herbal tea in the Mediterranean region. The cytotoxic effect of the 50% ethanolic and aqueous extract, determined by the MTT and NR assays, was evaluated in vitro on Human Colon Cancer Cell Line (HCT-116), using Triton 10% as positive control. The 50% ethanolic extract showed significant differences after 72 h of treatment, reducing cell proliferation to values close to 40%, even the lowest dose tested (5 mu g/ml). In the MTT assay, the same extract caused the lowest cell viability with 13% at a concentration of 1,000 mu g/ml after 72 h of treatment, being a value lower than Triton 10%. The antioxidant activity was also confirmed evaluating the capacity of the extracts to scavenge ABTS and DPPH radicals, and IC(50) values were highly correlated with the total phenolic and flavonoid content. Bioassay guided fractionation led to the isolation of an anti-proliferative compound, rosmarinic acid. Its structural elucidation was performed by HPLC/DAD/ESI/MS analysis. High dose of rosmarinic acid (1,000 mu g/ml) was clearly cytotoxic against HCT-116 cells, with a significant decrease in cell number since the earliest time point (24 h).

Aim of the study: To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnopharmacologic knowledge in Nor-Yauyos in order to protect it. This paper reports the results of an ethnopharmacological survey on the uses of medicinal plants by inhabitants of the Andean region Nor-Yauyos, Peru. In this region one surviving ethnic group, the Jaqaru-Quichuas, has been identified. Methodology: Field work was concluded between October 1999 and March 2000, using semi-structured questionnaire and participant observation as well as transects walks in wild herbal plant collection. Interviews with 68 informants (mean age: 54; 100% men, 0% women) were performed in 12 farmers' communities: Huancaya, Vilca, Vitis, Miraflores, Pinos, Carania, San Lorenzo De Alis, Santa Rosa De Tinco, Tomas, Huancachi, Laraos and Huantan. Results: 63 species of plants belonging to 29 families were reported. More than a half of reported plants were native, endemic of the studied area. Leaves and their mixtures were the most (67.26%) commonly used plant part. Most of the remedies were prepared in infusion, and 90.08% were administered orally. Most treated disorders were the gastrointestinal (18.59%) and respiratory ones (18.22%). Conclusions: 6 species (9.52%) without pharmacological references in international scientific literature, 21 species (33.33%) with 1-2 references, 16 species (25.40%) with 3-6 references, and 20 species (31.75%) that have been already widely studied were found.

Aim of the study: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Riverside of Navarra. Thereby, it will extend and complement a recent previous study carried out in the Northern Navarra. This paper aim to collect, analyse and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in the Riverside of Navarra (Iberian Peninsula) with 2554.4 km(2) and 144,674 inhabitants. Material and methods: We performed semi-structured interviews with 147 informants (mean age 76 years; the percentage of men and women was almost 50%) in 34 locations, identified the plants reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results: The informants reported data on 90 medicinal plants belonging to 39 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 99% of the pharmaceutical uses (541). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis and Urtica dioica. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The percentage of internal uses is three times higher than external uses. Conclusions: The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 11 new or scarcely cited uses for 8 medicinal plants. For 50% of the species (4) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 50% have only one or two references.

Tea is a popular beverage whose consumption is associated with prevention of certain disorders. The objective of the study was to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of white tea extract (WTE) on hydrogen peroxide induced toxicity in PC12 cells. Cells were treated with various doses of WTE (10-250 ¿g/ml) before exposition to 250 ¿M hydrogen peroxide and cell survival was determined through the MTT and LDH assays. Oxidative stress was quantified in the cells after treatments as intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and the antioxidant activity of the extract was assessed in a cell free system in terms of free radical scavenging capacity. Results showed that WTE has a significant protective effect in the PC12 cell line against hydrogen peroxide as cell survival was significantly superior in WTE-treated cells compared to hydrogen peroxide-treated cells. A reduction on intracellular oxidative stress as well as radical scavenging properties were produced by WTE. Results suggest that WTE protects PC12 cells against H(2)O(2)-induced toxicity, and that an antioxidant mechanism through ROS scavenging may be in part responsible for cells neuroprotection.