The aim of this research was to delimit the predictive and mediational model of resilience between character strengths to predict flourishing, in a sample of undergraduate students. After signing their informed consent, 642 university students completed three validated scales. Using an ex post facto design, regression, structural modeling, and mediation analyses were carried out, in order to construct a multi-causal predictive model. Results indicated a consistent predictive direct effect of character strengths on resilience and flourishing and of resilience on flourishing. As hypothesized, resilience also showed a mediating effect on the relationship between character strengths and flourishing. Additionally, results also revealed that the reactive and proactive factors of resilience were explained by different character strengths, reinforcing the idea that the two directions are complementary and necessary. Finally, several implications were established for the practice of positive psychology.

The aim of this research was to empirically validate hypothesized predictive relationships of protection and risk factors for experiencing academic stress. A synthesis of models-the presage-process-product model; the studying, learning and performing under stress competency model; and self- vs. external-regulatory theory-underlies the investigation and is important for assessment and guidance in stress situations within the university context. Over the course of an academic year, a sample of 564 Spanish university students voluntarily completed validated questionnaires, in an online format, on several psychological variables connected to academic stress. Correlational analysis and the path analysis model, within an ex post facto design, were used to build empirical models of the presage-process-product factors that constitute protection or risk factors in academic stress. Two statistically acceptable models appeared: one with protection factors and another with risk factors in predicting and preventing academic stress at a university. These results support the need for psychology units at university that have a preventive, health and education focus, going beyond the merely clinical. Focus on an individual is insufficient, given that there are also contextual factors that predispose academic stress. Discussion, conclusions, and implications for assessment and intervention in academic stress in university students and teachers, within the present COVID-19 crisis, are offered.

This theoretical analysis seeks to contribute to three objectives within the context of the proposed Frontiers Research Topic: (1) delimit two levels of analysis in the present pandemic situation: medicine-epidemiology and behavioral psychology, still under-addressed. While medicine has its essential role on the biological side, psychology has a comparable role on the behavioral side. (2) Analyze the importance of behavioral-educational factors in the pandemic situation, using a precise theoretical model from educational psychology for this analysis. (3) Propose preventive, psychoeducational intervention strategies based on the previous analyses.

In a population of young adults, this study analyzes possible linear relations of resilience and positivity to coping strategies and engagement-burnout. The aim was to establish a model with linear, associative, and predictive relations, to identify needs and make proposals for therapeutic intervention in different student profiles. A population of 1,126 undergraduate students with different student profiles gave their informed, written consent, and completed validated questionnaires (CD-RISC Scale; Positivity; Coping Strategies of Stress; Engagement, and Burnout). An ex post-facto design involved bivariate association analyses, multiple regression and structural predictions. The results offered evidence of associations and predictive relationships between resilience factors, positivity, coping strategies and engagement-burnout. The factors of resilience and positivity had significant differential associations (positive and negative) with factors of coping strategies. Their negative relationship to burnout factors, and positive relation to engagement factors, is especially important. Results of structural analysis showed an acceptable model of relationships between variables. We conclude with practical implications for therapeutic intervention: (1) the proactive factors of resilience reflect a perception of self-efficacy and the ability to change adaptively; (2) the reactive factors of resilience are usually associated with withstanding experiences of change, uncertainty or trauma.

This investigation aimed to analyze the predictive differential value of personal (self-regulation, self-efficacy, procrastination) and contextual characteristics (parents' socio-educational level), regarding academic achievement, among Colombian adolescents. A total of 430 students (from 11 to 18 years old) from both genders filled out validated self-reports and informed their academic achievement. We performed an ex-post-facto design, simple regression analyses, structural equations predictions analyses (SEM), and variance analyses (ANOVAs). The results showed that self-regulation is the most potent personal variable predictive of procrastination and achievement, positively associated with self-efficacy; additionally, the parents' educational level was also a predictor, although to a lesser level. The female group and the elderly group negatively predicted academic achievement, behaving as modulatory variables of the above results.

A renewed interest in the study of character and virtue has recently emerged in the fields of Education and Psychology. The latest research has confirmed the association between virtuous consistent behaviours and academic positive outcomes. However, the motivational dimension of character (the intentions underlying the patterns of observed behaviours) has received little attention. This research aims to extend the knowledge on this topic by examining the predictive relationships between the behavioural and motivational dimensions of character, with reference to academic engagement, career self-doubt and performance of Spanish university students. A total of 183 undergraduates aged 18-30 (142 of whom were women) from the north of Spain completed specific parts of self-report questionnaires, including the Values in Action VIA-72, a Spanish translated and validated version of the Moral Self-Relevance Measure MSR, and the Utrecht Work Engagement Student Scale UWES-S9. The collected data were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling. The behavioural dimension of character (character strength factors of caring, self-control and inquisitiveness) showed positive associations with academic engagement and performance. The motivational dimension of character (phronesis motivation), was negatively related to career self-doubt. For the first time, the present study has provided support for the contribution of both dimensions of character to undergraduate academic outcomes.

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have required substantial adjustments in terms of university teaching¿learning processes. The aim of this study was to verify whether there were significant differences between the academic year of 2020 and the two preceding years in factors and symptoms and stress. A total of 642 university students (ages 18¿25 years) participated by filling out validated self-reports during the months from March to August 2020. Using an ex post facto design, SEM analyses and simple and multiple ANOVAs were performed. Structural results showed that stress factors from the teaching process had a predictive value for the learning process, emotions, and academic burnout, and being a man was a factor predicting negative emotion. In a similar way, inferential results revealed no significant effect of academic year but did show an effect of gender on stress experiences during the pandemic. Aside from certain specific aspects, there was no significant global effect of the year 2020 on factors and symptoms of stress. The results showed that studying in the year of the COVID-19 outbreak did not have a significant effect on stress triggered by the teaching process. From these results, we draw implications for specific guidance interventions with university teachers and students.

Oliva¿s Escala para la Evaluación del Estilo Parental (EEEP) [Scale for the evaluation of parenting styles] asks adolescents about their parents¿ education styles separately (¿your father¿ and ¿your mother¿) or in a combined way (¿your parents¿), but only the separated version has been tested for validity. The objective of this work was to carry out a validation of the combined version. A sample of 1507 adolescents, aged 12 to 18 years, was recruited. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were run in two independent subsamples. Then, structural equation models (SEM) were run in order to test the association between the EEEP¿s subscales and adolescent outcomes (optimism, pessimism, and academic achievement). Results showed a good fit of the instruments¿ structure. Furthermore, the subscales showed associations with the outcomes. The EEEP can be reliably used in its combined form, which results in a reduction of items, often beneficial for research.

The Self-Regulation vs. External-Regulation Theory (2017) has postulated a continuum of regulation/non-regulation/dys-regulation that is present both in the individual and in the individual's context. This gives rise to a behavioral heuristic that can predict and explain other health-related variables, such as psychological reactance and student health. On a voluntary basis, 269 university students completed validated questionnaires on variables of regulation, reactance and health. Using an ex post facto design, we performed correlational analysis and structural linear regression to build a structural equations model (SEM) with acceptable statistical values. The results showed various predicted relationships: self-regulation was associated with and positively predicted self-regulated health behavior; external health-regulating contexts were associated with and positively predicted self-regulated health behavior; non-regulatory and dysregulatory contexts negatively predicted self-regulated health behavior and students' health itself, as well as positively predicting psychological reactance behavior. Implications are established for explaining variability in general and health-related self-regulation, as well as for intervening in these variables in health programs.

The research objective was to establish relationships of associa-tion, interdependence and structural prediction between the variables of test anxiety, self-regulation and stress coping strategies. The theoretical framework of reference was the Competence for Studying, Learning and Perform-ing under Stress (CSLPS) model. Participating were 142 students who were preparing for professional examinations to attain a post as public school teacher (primary education), enrolled at academies in Almería (Spain) for this purpose. Previously validated questionnaires were administered for da-ta collection. The study design was linear ex post-facto, with bivariate, in-ferential analyses of association (ANOVAs and MANOVAs) and of struc-tural prediction. Results showed a negative relationship between test anxie-ty self-regulation, especially in students with high emotionality, and a nega-tive impact on decision making. Positive relationships were found between test anxiety and strategies for coping with stress. Finally, a positive predic-tive relationship was verified between self-regulation and coping strategies, while associative and inferential analyses highlighted the role of goals as determining factors in strategies used for coping with stress, especially strategies that focus on problem solving. Results are discussed and implica-tions for improving these processes in professional examination candidates are established.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to establish predictive relationships of the Big Five personality factors (according to their self-regulatory level), together with resilience (proactive and reactive factors), for factors and symptoms of academic stress related to teaching and learning in the University context. A total of 405 female undergraduate students were selected, and completed questionnaires that had been previously validated in Spanish University students (Big Five personality factors, resilience, and academic stress symptoms and factors). A linear, ex-post facto design was used, including linear regression, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and mediational analyses. Specific linear regression showed the expected gradation: that self-regulatory personality factors (conscientiousness, extraversion) were positive linear predictors of proactive resilience, as well as significant negative predictors of stress factors and symptoms of academic stress; while the non-regulatory personality factors (openness to experience, agreeableness) showed little relationship. By contrast, the dysregulatory personality factor (neuroticism) was a negative predictor of proactive resilience, a positive predictor of reactive resilience, and positively predicted academic stress factors in the teaching and learning process, as well as stress symptoms. SEM general analysis showed that personality factors positively predicted resilience, and resilience negatively predicted factors and symptoms of academic stress. Specific mediational model analysis, with each personality factor, confirmed the different mediating relationships that appeared in the linear regression analyses. These results are discussed from the perspective of promoting resilience and healthy personalities in the University context. Implications for addressing academic stress at University are discussed.

The combination of student Self-Regulation (SR) and the context of Regulatory Teaching (RT), each in varying degree, has recently been demonstrated to have effects on achievement emotions, factors and symptoms of stress, and coping strategies. The aim of the present research study is to verify its possible further effects, on academic behavioral confidence and procrastination. A total of 1193 university students completed validated online questionnaires with regard to specific subjects in their degree program. Using an ex post facto design, multivariate analyses and structural equation modeling (SEM) were carried out in order to test the relationships predicted by the model. SR and RT had a significant joint effect in determining the degree of academic behavioral confidence and of procrastination. Academic behavioral confidence also significantly predicted reasons for procrastinating, and these in turn predicted activities of procrastination. Conclusions are discussed, insisting on the combined weight of the two variables in determining academic behavioral confidence, reasons for procrastinating and activities subject to procrastination, in university students. Implications for guidance and educational support of university students and teachers are analyzed.

Young adults face different stressors in their transition to college. Negative emotions such as stress can emerge from the demands they face. This study aimed at gaining an improved understanding of the role that gender and age play in the well-being of young adults. Coping strategies, resilience, self-regulation, and positivity were selected as indicators of well-being. Descriptive and inferential analysis have been conducted. Results show that well-being varies significantly with age and gender. Gender was predominantly involved in the acquisition of the well-being outcomes, highly predicting problem-focused coping strategies. No interaction effects were found between gender and age. An improved understanding of the developmental factors involved in well-being outcomes will enlighten future interventions aimed at improving young people¿s resources to face adversity.

Achievement emotions that the university student experiences in the learning process can be significant in facilitating or interfering with learning. The present research looked for linear and predictive relations between university students¿ achievement emotions, coping strategies, and engagement-burnout, in three dierent learning situations (classroom, study time, and testing). Hypotheses were identified for a possible model that would analyze the two facets of perfectionism based on these relations. In the case of perfectionistic strivings, the test hypothesis was that positive emotions would predispose the use of problem-focused coping strategies and an emotional state of engagement; in the case of perfectionistic concerns, however, negative emotions would predispose the use of emotion-focused strategies and a state of burnout. A total of 654 university students participated in the study, using an online tool to complete validated questionnaires on the three study variables. All students provided informed consent and corresponding permissions. Given the ex-post facto linear design, the predictions could be verified for each situation by means of logistic regression analyses and Structural Equations Models (SEM). Empirical results lent support, in varying degree, to the proposed theoretical relations. The testing situation was of particular interest. We discuss implications for perfectionism research and for the practice of prevention, education and health care in the university setting.

The study focused on the analysis of linear relations between personality, self-regulation, coping strategies and achievement emotions. The main objective was to establish a model of linear, empirical, associative to infer needs and proposals for intervening in emotional health in the dierent profiles of university students. A total of 642 undergraduate students participated in this research. Evidence of associative relations between personality factors, self-regulation and coping strategies was found. The neuroticism factor had a significant negative associative relationship with Self-Regulation both globally and in its factors; especially important was its negative relation to decision making, and coping strategies focused in emotion. The results of Structural Equation Model showed an acceptable model of relationships, in each emotional context. Results and practical implications are discussed.

The aim of this research was to determine the degree to which undergraduate students¿ learning approach, academic achievement and satisfaction were determined by the combination of an intrapersonal factor (self-regulation) and a interpersonal factor (contextual or regulatory teaching). The hypothesis proposed that greater combined regulation (internal and external) would be accompanied by more of a deep approach to learning, more satisfaction and higher achievement, while a lower level of combined regulation would determine a surface approach, less satisfaction and lower achievement. Within an ex post facto design by selection, 1036 university students completed validated questionnaires using an online tool. Several multivariate analyses were conducted. Results showed that the combination of self-regulation and external regulation can be ordered as levels along a five-point scale or heuristic. These levels linearly determine type of learning approach, academic achievement and satisfaction. Implications are established for quality and improvement of the teaching and learning process at university.

The research aim of this paper was two-fold: to generate evidence that personality factors are linear predictors of the variable approaches to learning (a relevant cognitive-motivational variable of Educational Psychology); and to show that each type of learning approach differentially predicts positive or negative achievement emotions, in three learning situations: class time, study time, and testing. A total of 658 university students voluntarily completed validated questionnaires referring to these three variables. Using an ex post facto design, we conducted correlational analyses, regression analyses, and multiple structural predictions. The results showed that Conscientiousness is associated with and predicts a Deep Approach to learning, while also predicting positive achievement emotions. By contrast, Neuroticism is associated with and significantly predicts a Surface Approach to learning, as well as negative achievement emotions. There are important psychoeducational implications in the university context, both for prevention and for self-improvement, and for programs that offer psychoeducational guidance.

Achievement emotions constitute one important variable among the many variables of students' learning. The aim of this research was to analyze the differential effect of university students' levels of self-regulation (1 = low, 2 = medium and 3 = high), and of their level of perceived stress in three academic situations (1 = class, 2 = study time and 3 = testing), on the type of achievement emotionality they experience (positive and negative emotions). The following hypotheses were established: (1) a higher level of student self-regulation would be accompanied by higher levels of positive emotionality and lower levels of negative emotionality and (2) a higher level of situational stress would predispose higher levels of negative emotionality and lower levels of positive emotionality. A total of 520 university students completed three self-reports with validated inventories. Descriptive, correlational, and structural prediction analyses (SEM) were performed, as well as 3 x 3 ANOVAs, under an ex post facto design by selection. The results showed overall fulfillment of the hypotheses, except for a few specific emotions. Implications for prevention and psychoeducational guidance in the sphere of university education are discussed.

The SRL vs. ERL theory has shown that the combination of levels of student self-regulation and regulation from the teaching context produces linear effects on achievement emotions and coping strategies. However, a similar effect on stress factors and symptoms of university students has not yet been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to test this prediction. It was hypothesized that the level of student self-regulation (low/medium/high), in interaction with the level of external regulation from teaching (low/medium/high), would also produce a linear effect on stress factors and symptoms of university students. A total of 527 undergraduate students completed validated questionnaires about self-regulation, regulatory teaching, stress factors, and symptoms. Using anex postfacto design by selection, ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 x 3; 5 x 1; 5 x 2) were carried out. The results confirmed that the level of self-regulation and the level of regulatory teaching jointly determined the level of stress factors and symptoms of university students. Once again, a five-level heuristic of possible combinations was configured to jointly determine university students' level of academic stress. We concluded that the combination of different levels of student regulation and regulation from the teaching process jointly determines university students' level of academic stress. The implications for university students' emotional health, stress prevention, and well-being are established.

The SRL vs. ERL TheoryTM predicts that regulation-related factors in the student and in the context combine to determine the student¿s levels in emotional variables, stress, and coping strategies. The objective of the present research was to test this prediction in the aspect of coping strategies. Our hypothesis posed that students¿ level of self-regulation (low¿medium¿high), in combination with the level of regulation promoted in teaching (low¿medium¿high), would determine the type of strategies students used to cope with academic stress; the interaction of these levels would focus coping strategies either toward emotions or toward the problem. A total of 944 university students completed validated questionnaires on self-regulation, regulatory teaching, and coping strategies, using an online tool. ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 1; 3 3; 5 1) were carried out, in a quasi-experimental design by selection. Level of self-regulation and level of regulatory teaching both had a significant effect on the type of coping strategies used. The most important finding was that the combined level of self-regulation and external regulation, on a five-level scale or heuristic, predicted the type of coping strategies that were used. In conclusion, the fact that this combination can predict type of coping strategies used by the student lends empirical support to the initial theory. Implications for the teaching¿ learning process at university and for students¿ emotional health are discussed.

INTRODUCTION. Procrastination involves a self-regulatory deficit, defined by the voluntary and irrational delay on the course of an action, that in turn generates negative consequences for an individual. It is reported in the literature that between 40 and 80% of students present procrastination conducts which negatively impact their performance, as well as their physical and mental health. There are various causes for procrastination that affect students differently in accordance to certain personal and social characteristics. For this study, three students' profiles are categorised, according to the main reason to procrastinate: rebellion, fear of being assessed and laziness. The paper analyzed which traits characterize each reason: demographic traits (gender, age), academic traits (daily routine, semester, dedication, time planning, procrastination frequency, academic performance) and personal traits (good habits, psychological stability and self-regulation - goals, perseverance, decision making and learning from mistakes). METHOD. The sample was of 457 universtity students from different programs and semesters. The relation between the reasons to procrastinate and the demographic, academic and personal traits was explored through bivariate and punctual biserial correlations; and the relative weight of each variable on the three considered types of procrastination was assessed through multiple linear regression. RESULTS. It was found that the profile characterized by "rebellion" is associated with young men with low perseverance and decision making; "fear of being assessed" is associated to younger students, with less psychological stability and low capacity to make decisions; the "laziness" profile is associated to men with low general self-regulation. DISCUSSION. The implications for the design of preventive academic interventions for the management of procrastination, in accordance to the specific needs of each type of procrastination is discussed.

Within a socio-situational and socio-behavioural context, the relationships between the Big Five personality traits and the academic confidence of university students and how they differed by sex of the student was explored. Previous research has identified both conscientiousness and academic confidence as being linked to university performance. In respect of sex, female students have been found to score higher on all of the Big Five measures, whereas the relationship between sex and academic confidence has been mixed. Using self-report measures of personality and academic confidence from 1523 Spanish students, it was found that the female students were more confident in their grades, studying and attendance components of academic confidence and had higher scores for conscientiousness, agreeableness and neuroticism personality measures. A multiple regression analysis found that personality predicts academic confidence, with conscientiousness being the trait that statistically loaded the most strongly. This research further confirms the validity of the Academic Behavioural Confidence scale and suggests that measures of personality and, especially, academic confidence could be usefully used in student support situations to help students acquire the strategies and skills that lead to successful university study. It is suggested that further research in the area needs to include outcome or achievement measures and measures of hypothetical constructs, such as personality and academic confidence, that go beyond self-report measures.

The SRL vs.ERL Theory predicts that a student's own self-regulation and the regulatory nature of the context are factors that jointly determine the student's level of motivational-affective variables. However, this principle has not yet been verified in the case of achievement emotions. The aim of this research was to test this prediction, with the hypothesis that students' level of self-regulation (low-medium-high), in interaction with the regulatory nature of the teaching (low-medium-high), would determine positive or negative emotions as well as the degree of burnout/engagement. A total of 440 university students completed validated questionnaires on self-regulation; regulatory teaching; achievement emotions in class, in study and in testing situations; and on burnout/engagement. Using a quasi-experimental design by selection, ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 × 3; 5 × 1) were carried out. The results confirmed that the level of self-regulation and the level of external regulation jointly determined university students' level of achievement emotions, as well as their level of burnout/engagement. Based on these results, a five-level progressive scale was configured. We conclude that this scale may be useful and adequate as a heuristic technique or model for understanding and analyzing the type of student-teacher interaction that is taking place in the university classroom, and thereby learn the probability of stressful effects and the students' level of emotional health.

This research report aims to present the characteristics, structure and effects of a psychoeducational technological innovation (called the e-ALADO Program) for the prevention of alcohol intake in adolescents. Based on the Competency model for interaction with alcohol, this program consists of a total of 24 lessons that promote conceptual, procedural, and attitudinal learning, in ICT format (www.alado.es). The hypothesis of this validation study established that adolescents treated with the program would improve their levels of competence and their interaction behavior with alcohol, depending of their personal level of self-regulation. A total of 148 adolescents from 12 to 16 years of age from three Spanish educational centers with different sociocultural contexts participated. A quasi-experimental methodology with repeated measures and use of inferential analysis was used (ANOVAs and MANOVAs). The results show a main principal effect of the Treatment variable, of the Self-Regulation Level variable, and an interaction effect of Treatment × Self-regulation in the conceptual and attitudinal subcompetence for interaction with alcohol. The results are discussed in the face of new technological developments that allow the evaluation and intervention in the prevention of alcohol intake with adolescents. An important implication of this work is related to the importance of self-regulation as a psychological variable. Also, the suitability of psychoeducational interventions with new technological formats in the prevention of adolescents¿ alcohol intake as entrepreneurial activity. Keywords: prevention of alcohol intake, competence model, adolescence, e-Program, technological utility

Introduction: Traditionally, predictive models of in-hospital mortality in ischemic stroke have focused on individual patient variables, to the neglect of in-hospital contextual variables. In addition, frequently used scores are betters predictors of risk of sequelae than mortality, and, to date, the use of structural equations in elaborating such measures has only been anecdotal. Aims: The aim of this paper was to analyze the joint predictive weight of the following: (1) individual factors (age, gender, obesity, and epilepsy) on the mediating factors (arrhythmias, dyslipidemia, hypertension), and ultimately death (exitus); (2) contextual in-hospital factors (year and existence of a stroke unit) on the mediating factors (number of diagnoses, procedures and length of stay, and re-admission), as determinants of death; and (3) certain factors in predicting others. Material and Methods: Retrospective cohort study through observational analysis of all hospital stays of Diagnosis Related Group (DRG) 14, non-lysed ischemic stroke, during the time period 2008-2012. The sample consisted of a total of 186,245 hospital stays, taken from the Minimum Basic Data Set (MBDS) upon discharge from Spanish hospitals. MANOVAs were carried out to establish the linear effect of certain variables on others. These formed the basis for building the Structural Equation Model (SEM), with the corresponding parameters and restrictive indicators. Results: A consistent model of causal predictive relationships between the postulated variables was obtained. One of the most interesting effects was the predictive value of contextual variables on individual variables, especially the indirect effect of the existence of stroke units on reducing number of procedures, readmission and in-hospital mortality. Conclusion: Contextual variables, and specifically the availability of stroke units, made a positive impact on individual variables that affect prognosis and mortality in ischemic stroke. Moreover, it is feasible to determine this impact through the use of structural equation methodology. We analyze the methodological and clinical implications of this type of study for hospital policies.

This research aimed to analyze the linear bivariate correlation and structural relations between self-regulation -as a central construct-, with flow, health, procrastination and academic performance, in an academic context. A total of 363 college students took part, 101 men (27.8%) and 262 women (72.2%). Participants had an average age of 22 years and were between the first and fifth year of studies. They were from five different programs and two universities in Bogotá city (Colombia). A validated ad hoc questionnaire of physical and psychological health was applied along with a battery of tests to measure self-regulation, procrastination, and flourishing. To establish an association relationship, Pearson bivariate correlations were performed using SPSS software (v. 22.0), and structural relationship predictive analysis was performed using an SEM on AMOS software (v. 22.0). Regarding this linear association, it was established that (1) self-regulation has a significant positive association on flourishing and overall health, and a negative effect on procrastination. Regarding the structural relation, it confirmed that (2) self-regulation is a direct and positive predictor of flourishing and health; (3) self-regulation predicts procrastination directly and negatively, and academic performance indirectly and positively; and (4) age and gender have a prediction effect on the analyzed variables. Implications, limitations and future research scope are discussed.

Educational Psychology, as an area of Psychology that specializes in formative processes, faces several important challenges in the information and knowledge society of this twenty first century. One of these challenges is to facilitate a paradigm shift from a nearly exclusive focus on social science to the scientific-technological approach of a discipline that produces innovation and meaningful transfer of science and technology. The Research, Development, and Innovation (RD & I) value chain means pursuing these three endeavors in both the academic and professional lines of Educational Psychology. It is a strategy of innovation that leads us to integrate academic or research activity (R), research-related or professional scientific-technological development of innovation (D) and transfer and entrepreneurship activity (I). Generating innovation and transfer, applicable to educational contexts, can be an important stimulus of activity for new practicing psychologists in Educational Psychology. The RD & I value chain can become an academic, research-related or professional advantage in different activities, since it pertains to the processes, products and services found in the sphere of Educational Psychology. Several examples of how the RD & I chain can help improve psychoeducational activities are presented. First, we analyze competitive improvements that the RD & I chain can offer in competitive bids. Second, we give examples of the RD & I chain in the development of new processes, products and services in Projects of Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Educational Psychology, specifically illustrating the chain in each case. In order for this conception to take shape, a new cross-functional area must be created in professional and educational organizations. Specifically, this means creating an RD & I Department, or some area that branches across the other functions. The mission of this cross-functional unit is the actual implementation of the RD & I chain in the educational organization, as well as an incentive for innovative activities: use of ICT applications, organizational improvement, improved assessment, analysis of information produced by the organization itself, cost-benefit analysis, strategic decision-making processes, and so on.

In recent decades there have been significant changes in the conceptualization of reading as well as in the perception of how this activity should be assessed. Interest in the analysis of reading processes has led to the emergence of new explanatory models based primarily on the contributions of cognitive psychology. In parallel, there have been notable advances in measurement procedures, especially in models based on Item Response Theory (IRT), as well as in the capacity and performance of specific software programs that allow data to be managed and analyzed. These changes have contributed significantly to the rise of testing procedures such as computerized adaptive tests (CATs), whose fundamental characteristic is that the sequence of items presented in the tests is adapted to the level of competence that the subject manifests. Likewise, the incorporation of elements of dynamic assessment (DA) as the prompts are gradually offered allows for obtaining information about the type and degree of support required to optimize the subject¿s performance. In this sense, the confluence of contributions from DA and CATs offers a new possibility for approaching the assessment of learning processes. In this article, we present a longitudinal research developed in two phases, through which a computerized dynamic adaptive assessment battery of reading processes (EDPL-BAI) was configured. The research frame involved 1,831 students (46% girls) from 13 public schools in three regions of Chile. The purpose of this study was to analyze the differential contribution on reading competence of dynamic scores obtained in a subsample composed of 324 (47% girls) students from third to sixth grade after the implementation of a set of adaptive dynamic tests of morpho-syntactic processes. The results achieved in the structural equation modeling indicate a good global fit. Individual relationships show a significant contribution of calibrated score that Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2018 | Volume 9 | Article 1492 fpsyg-09-01492 August 25, 2018 Time: 10:59 # 2 Navarro et al. Curriculum-Based Dynamic Computerized-Adaptive Assessment reflects estimated knowledge level on reading competence, as well as dynamic scores based on the assigned value of graduated prompts required by the students. These results showed significant predictive values on reading competence and incremental validity in relation to predictions made by static criterion tests.

Introduction. The objective of this research study was to establish interdependence relationships between cognitive learning strategies, motivational strategies toward study and academic stress, as variables of the Competency Model for Studying, Learning and Performing under Stress (SLPS), in a group of professional examination candidates. Method. Participating were a total of 179 candidates who sought to obtain posts as primary school teachers. The variables were measured using previously validated self-reports. The study design was linear ex post-facto, with inferential analyses (ANOVAs and MANOVAs). Results. The results showed very significant, positive interdependence relationships between cognitive learning strategies and motivational strategies toward study. In addition, very significant, negative relationships were found between motivational strategies toward study and academic stress. However, direct interdependence relationships did not appear between cognitive learning strategies and academic stress. Discussion. These results show that subjects with a high level of cognitive learning strategies used more motivational strategies toward study than subjects with a medium level, and these in turn used more motivational strategies than subjects with a low level. Moreover, they also show that subjects high in motivational strategies toward study suffered less academic stress than the medium and low subjects in this variable. Consequently, the results suggest that these variables are interrelated, and that both cognitive and motivational strategies can be worked on, not only as support for study, but also as prevention of academic stress and its negative effects, especially in highly stress-prone contexts.

Background: The Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) is an instrument employed to measure the generalized ability to regulate behavior. Self-regulation is related to the management of risk behaviors, such as drug abuse or anti-social behaviors. The SRQ has been used in young adult samples. However, some risk behaviors are increasing among adolescents. The aim of this study is to examine the psychometric properties of the SRQ among Spanish adolescents. Methods: 845 high-school Spanish students (N = 443; 52.43% women), from 12 to 17 years old and ranging from the first to the fourth year of studies, completed the SRQ. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out in order to establish structural adequacy. Then, a study of each subscale was conducted using the Rasch model for dimensionality, adjustment of the sample questions, functionality of the response categories, and reliability. Results: While controlling for method effects, the data showed goodness of fit with the four-factor solution and 17 items (Goal setting, Decision making, Learning from mistakes, and Perseverance), and the four sub-scales were unidimensional according to the Rasch analysis. The Rasch model itself was shown to be reliable, but not at the level of persons. This means that the instrument was not sensitive enough to discriminate people with different self-regulation levels. Discussion: These results support the use of the Spanish Short SRQ in adolescent samples. Some suggestions are made to improve the instrument, particularly in its application as a diagnostic tool.

The competency for interacting with alcohol is a highly useful Educational Psychology model for preventing and for understanding the different behavioral levels of this interaction. Knowledge of facts, concepts and principles about alcohol use, self-regulated behavior, and attitudes toward alcohol are predictive of adequate interaction with alcohol. The objective of this study was to empirically evaluate this postulated relationship. A total of 328 Spanish adolescents participated, between the ages of 12 and 17. All were enrolled in 1st¿4th year of compulsory secondary education, in the context of the ALADO Program for prevention of alcohol intake in adolescents. An ex post facto design was used, with inferential analyses and SEM analyses. Results show an interdependence relationship, with significant structural prediction between the behavioral levels defined and the level of alcohol intake, with principles, self-regulating control and attitudes carrying more weight. Analyses are presented, as are implications for psychoeducational intervention using preventive programs based on this competency model.

The Theory of Self- vs. Externally-Regulated LearningTM has integrated the variables of SRL theory, the DEDEPRO model, and the 3P model. This new Theory has proposed: (a) in general, the importance of the cyclical model of individual self-regulation (SR) and of external regulation stemming from the context (ER), as two different and complementary variables, both in combination and in interaction; (b) specifically, in the teaching-learning context, the relevance of different types of combinations between levels of self-regulation (SR) and of external regulation (ER) in the prediction of self-regulated learning (SRL), and of cognitive-emotional achievement. This review analyzes the assumptions, conceptual elements, empirical evidence, benefits and limitations of SRL vs. ERL Theory. Finally, professional fields of application and future lines of research are suggested.

El Estilo Acción-Emoción (EAE) es un constructo psicológico de tipo motivacional-afectivo referido a la motivación de logro, basado en el Patrón de Conducta tipo A (PCTA), característico de los alumnos, en interacción con situaciones de estrés. La combinación de la competitividad y la sobrecarga laboral, con las emociones de la impaciencia y hostilidad, conduce a una clasificación en cinco categorías de estilo de acciónemoción (Tipo B, tipo Impaciente-hostil, Tipo Medio, Tipo CompetitivoSobrecarga Laboral y Tipo A). El objetivo de la presente investigación fue establecer la relación entre las características del EAE con los enfoques de aprendizaje (enfoque profundo y enfoque superficial) y las estrategias de afrontamiento (centradas en la emoción y centradas en el problema). La muestra estuvo compuesta por 225 estudiantes del Programa de Licenciatura en Psicología. Se realizaron análisis de correlaciones bivariados de Pearson y análisis multivariados. Los resultados mostraron una asociación positiva y significativa de las características de la competitividad-sobrecarga con el enfoque profundo y las estrategias centradas en el problema, así como de la impaciencia-hostilidad con el enfoque superficial y las estrategias centradas en la emoción. El nivel de estilo de acción-emoción tuvo un efecto principal significativo. Los resultados obtenidos verifican las hipótesis planteadas referidas a la relación entre el estilo de acción-emoción, los enfoques de aprendizaje y las estrategias de afrontamiento.

The present investigation examines how personal self-regulation (presage variable) and regulatory teaching (process variable of teaching) relate to learning approaches, strategies for coping with stress, and self-regulated learning (process variables of learning) and, finally, how they relate to performance and satisfaction with the learning process (product variables). The objective was to clarify the associative and predictive relations between these variables, as contextualized in two different models that use the presage-process-product paradigm (the Biggs and DEDEPRO models). A total of 1101 university students participated in the study. The design was cross-sectional and retrospective with attributional (or selection) variables, using correlations and structural analysis. The results provide consistent and significant empirical evidence for the relationships hypothesized, incorporating variables that are part of and influence the teaching¿learning process in Higher Education. Findings confirm the importance of interactive relationships within the teaching¿learning process, where personal selfregulation is assumed to take place in connection with regulatory teaching. Variables that are involved in the relationships validated here reinforce the idea that both personal factors and teaching and learning factors should be taken into consideration when dealing with a formal teaching¿learning context at university.

The Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) has been used in psychology research during the last decade. The instrument has been used in a variety of life domains: psychological well-being, dispositional happiness, depressive symptoms and career adaptability. This investigation studies the factor structure and internal consistency of the SRQ, extracting a short version in the Spanish context and examining its relation to academic variables (self-regulated learning and grades). The analysis started from a version with 63 items, representing seven conceptual dimensions. This version was administered to a sample of 834 students from Education and Psychology. The data from the above-mentioned sample were randomly divided into two sets, each containing 50% of the students (n = 417): exploratory and confirmatory. In the exploratory sample, exploratory factor analysis findings suggested a more parsimonious measurement model, with 17 items and 4 first-order factors. The confirmatory sample was used in the confirmatory factor analysis. The results show evidence for the internal consistency of the Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) in the Spanish context, with indices greater than .90 and errors around .05. Regarding academic variables, both versions are related to self-regulated learning (r = .40, p < .01) and students¿ grades (r = .15, p < .01). Differences from other studies done in North America are discussed, as well as similarities to a study from North-West University (in South Africa).

Introduction. The 3P and DEDEPRO Models predict interactive relationships among presage, process, and product variables through teaching and learning of self-regulation. The DEDEPRO Model has established different possibilities for interaction between student characteristics of self-regulation and external characteristics of regulatory teaching. The aim of this investigation is empirical validate the model of four interaction types. Method. The sample included 765 undergraduate students from two universities in the south of Spain. Using an ex post-facto design, the date collection was obtained from three validated instruments: Self-regulation scale (SRQ), the Scales for Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Process (ATLP-S) and the Academic Behaviour Confidence (ABC) scales at two different points in time. Academic performance was evaluated through the final grade for each subject area. Multivariate Analyses were used and from Structural Equation Modelling was used to explore possible causal relationships. Results. Results offer evidence for a consistent, four-fold interaction typology and empirical causal model, thus giving significant confirmation of the proposed rational model. As predicted, the most significant of these interactions was the student¿s self-regulation with regulatory instruction. Conclusion. The best type of interaction is high personal self-regulation with a highly regulated teaching-learning process, yielding high performance and academic confidence. Keywords: DEDEPRO Model, Personal Self-Regulation, Regulatory teaching, Self-Regulated Learning, Achievement, Academic Confidence.

ional context self-regulated learning is the construct more studied. For this, there are a scarcity of studies that seek to establish relationships between personal self-regulation and other educational variables. We aim to delimit the relationships between personal self-regulation (Presage variable) and different process variables: approaches to learning, self-regulated learning and coping strategies, establishing the importance of these variables in future research in meta-cognition. Method. A total of 1101 students participated in the study (university and candidate students). The analyses made to meet the proposed objectives and test hypotheses were: Association analysis through Pearson bivariate correlations (Association objectives and hypotheses); linear regression analysis (Regression objectives and hypotheses); Cluster analysis, ANOVAS and MANOVAS, with Scheffé post hoc, and effect size estimates (Inferential objectives and hypotheses). Results. A significant associative relationship appeared between self-regulation and learning approaches and self-regulated learning; and negative correlation with emotion-focused coping strategies. The different levels of personal self-regulation (presage learning variable) determine of the type of learning approach and of coping strategies. Discussion and Conclusions. The importance of personal self-regulation that determines the degree of cognitive self-regulation during the process of university learning; the relationship between personal self-regulation and the type and quantity of coping strategies, and the relationship between self-regulated learning and coping

The 3P and DEDEPRO Models predict interactive relationships among presage, process, and product variables in teaching and learning. This study examines the effects of a teacher training programme in regulatory teaching-learning strategies on students¿ perception of the two processes. The sample included 737 undergraduate students and 12 teachers from two universities in southern Spain. Using a quasi-experimental design, data was collected using three validated instruments: The Scales for Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Process, student version (ATLP-S), the Scales for Interactive Assessment of the Teaching-Learning Process (IATLP) and the Experiences of Teaching and Learning questionnaire (ETLQ). MANOVAs and structural equation analysis were applied. As predicted, results offer evidence for a consistent effect of the training, in interaction with the level of regulation in teaching, on university students¿ perception of regulatoryteaching, of self-regulated learning and on their level of satisfaction. Implications for the trainingof university teachers are discussed.

The aims of this research were: (1) Interdependence between academic confidence with approach to learning and achievement, by gender; (2) Model the relationship between the confidence academic, approach to learning and academic outcome. Data from 2429 psychology undergraduate students from three universities (two in Spain and one in the UK) was analysed using parametric tests of difference and structural equation modelling. Working with the ABC scale, the revised study process questionnaire two factor (R-SPQ-2) scale and academic performance measured by grade point average (GPA). The results showed that male students had higher levels of verbalising confidence. The female students showed higher confidence in studying and attendance and a lower surface approach to learning. Higher confidence was associated with a deep approach to learning but not directly with GPA scores. The implications are discussed.

The aim of this study was to analyze the exploratory and confi rmatory structure, as well as other psychometric properties, of the Cuestionario de Problemas de Convivencia Escolar (CPCE; in Spanish, the Questionnaire on School Maladjustment Problems [QSMP]), using a sample of Spanish adolescents. The instrument was administered to 60 secondary education teachers (53.4% females and 46.6% males) between the ages of 28 and 54 years (M= 41.2, SD= 11.5), who evaluated a total of 857 adolescent students. The fi rst-order exploratory factor analysis identifi ed 7 factors, explaining a total variance of 62%. A second-order factor analysis yielded three dimensions that explain 84% of the variance. A confi rmatory factor analysis was subsequently performed in order to reduce the number of factors obtained in the exploratory analysis as well as the number of items. Lastly, we present the results of reliability, internal consistency, and validity indices. These results and their implications for future research and for the practice of educational guidance and intervention are discussed in the conclusions.

Research has shown that UK university students¿ confidence in engaging with their academic studies can be usefully measured using the Academic Behavioural Confidence (ABC) scale. The scale is best considered as a 17-item scale measuring confidence towards grades, studying, verbalising and attendance. A substantial collaborative study with research partners in Spain created the need for the ABC scale to be translated into Castellan Spanish, providing an opportunity to carry out a cross-cultural validation of the scale. A total of 2,056 Spanish psychology students from the universities of Almería and Granada in south-eastern Spain completed an appropriately translated version of the ABC scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the four-subscale structure derived from equivalent UK students was still the best description of the data, although the fit of the four-factor model to the Spanish data was not quite as good as it had been with an equivalent UK sample. Possible explanations for the poorer fit are discussed. A further opportunity arose to validate the Spanish version of the ABC scale against the Revised Two-Factor Study Process Questionnaire. The findings showed that the ABC subscales of Grades, Studying and Verbalising significantly correlated with a deep approach to learning, as predicted, although it is noted that the correlation coefficients, whilst significant (p < .01), were again not as high as seen with the UK student data. It is nevertheless argued that the ABC scale in both its Spanish and English versions is a useful way of understanding students¿ orientation to their university study, and can be used in research, as a diagnostic tool or to aid tutors in creating more effective learning opportunities for their students.

Introduction: In the present study, we investigated the potential factors that influenced the level of students satisfaction with the teaching¿learning process (TLP), from the perspective of students participating in the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) experience. Method: A total of 1490 students from the Universities of Almería and Granada (Spain) participated in an evaluation of their class discipline area. They completed the new revised protocol for evaluating the ECTS experience. Analyses of variance were carried out, taking the following factors as independent variables: student¿s grade average, year in school, study discipline, credit load in terms of ECTS credits assigned to a subject, the e-learning approach. Perception of the TLP was used as the dependent variable. Results: The data analyses showed variability of the degree of statistically significance among the factors that influenced students¿ perceptions of the TLP. These factors included: Student¿s grade average (in favor of high performers), year in school (in favor of earlier years), ECTS load (in favor of subjects with a medium load of credits), and e-learning (in favor of its use). These research findings provided evidence to explore the delineation of a potential profile of factors that trigger a favorable perception of the TLP. Discussion and Conclusion: The present findings certainly have implications to deepen our understanding of the core beliefs, commitment, and the experience in shaping the implementation of the European Higher Education Area through the ECTS.

Current academic and professional reality in Psychology has brought the pursuit of undergraduate and graduate qualifications to an important crossroads. The objective of this study is to explain the need to adopt an integrated approach, both academic and professional, in order to construct a single scientific/technological model that underpins work in psychology in today¿s knowledge-based society. First, through a consideration of the academic and professional changes affecting the field of psychology, we identify the current parameters of Educational Psychology, giving special emphasis to scientific/technological factors. Next, we review the different professional areas of Educational Psychology, and propose R&D&I activity as an element that should represent a common theme running throughout Educational and School Psychology for the 21st century. Finally, we offer examples of the components of this new area of work in Educational Psychology, which link it with the classical fields of the discipline. We conclude by pointing out the need to analyze today¿s reality, in its scientific-technological, academic and professional aspects, with a view to making R&D&I an integral part of Psychology in general and of Educational Psychology in particular. To this end, we postulate a Strategic Action Programme to meet the challenges facing Psychology as a science and as a profession

Esta investigación evaluó si un programa de mindfulness (conciencia plena) producía una reducción en el cansancio emocional y burnout, y mejora en el engagement académico, en estudiantes universitarios. Se utilizó un diseño experimental, con medidas pretest, postest y seguimiento. Los análisis estadísticos mostraron diferencias significativas, a favor del grupo experimental, en todas las variables, observándose una reducción significativa del cansancio emocional y el burnout, e incremento del engagement académico. Las medidas de seguimiento mostraron que estos resultados se mantuvieron a los seis meses. Se discute la importancia y la utilidad de las técnicas de mindfulness en el sistema educativo universitario.

Introduction: Coping Strategies and Resilience have emerged as two variables that determine behavior when facing stress in academic situations. Current research examines their role among other motivational-affective variables of a cognitive type. The objective of this study was to establish how the gender of university students relates to strategies for coping with stress and to resilience. An interdependence relationship was hypothesized between students¿ gender and the type of coping strategies used, and between gender and resilience behavior. Method: The participants were 243 students from the Psychology degree program at the University of Almería (Spain). An ex post-facto design was used. The assessment instruments were: (1) for Coping Strategies, the Escalas de Estrategias de Coping, a Spanish version of the Coping with Stress Questionnaire by Lazarus and Folman (Chorot & Sandín, 1987, Sandín & Chorot, 2003), assessing coping strategies that either focus on the problem or focus on emotion, when managing academic stress; (2) for Resilience, the CD-RISC inventory, Spanish version (Connor & Davidon, 2003). The latter is a likerttype scale made up of 25 items and five factors: (1) personal competence, high standards and tenacity, (2) tolerance of negative affect and strengthening effects of stress, (3) positive acceptance of change, and secure relationships, (4) control and (5) spiritual influences. Cluster analyses, correlation and ANOVAs were performed. Results: Significant differences appeared in the variables assessed as a function of gender. Female university students scored higher on total coping strategies, and on The license for this PDF is unlimited except that no part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted commercially in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services. 206 J. de la Fuente, M. Cardelle-Elawar, J. M. Martínez-Vicente et al. coping strategies focused on emotion and on the problem. As for resilience, male students had higher scores in withstanding stress, while female students scored higher on the spirituality factor. Discussion: The results provide evidence of the importance of coping strategies and resilience in the life of the university student, according to students¿ gender. Furthermore, they concur with other prior evidence. An important line of research is thus marked out for the study of motivational and affective variables involved in how university students learn.

This chapter argues that there are many, just many many variables which contribute to academic performance as measured in degree outcome, and, as such, simple bivariate analysis is inappropriate. We use structural equation modelling, and explore the contribution of academic behavioural confidence, to make the point that it does contribute to academic performance, but to a lesser extent than self-efficacy theory argues. We suggest that this is because degree outcome is made up of many efficacy variables, which we argue are better captured overall in academic behavioural confidence.

Introduction. Academic Confidence and Gender have emerged as variables that determine cognitive behavior while learning. At present, research examines their role as types of motivational-affective variables. The objective of this study was to establish dependence relationships of academic confidence and gender with Perception of the teaching-learning process. We hypothesized a dependence relationship and joint effect of students¿ level of academic confidence and their gender on their perception of the teaching-learning process. Method. A total of 494 university students from the Psychology Degree programs at the University of Almeria (Spain) and Cardiff Metropolitan University (UK) participated in the study. The Academic Behavioural Confidence Scale, ABC (2009) was used to measure academic confidence. This questionnaire contains four subscales and has acceptable reliability and validity values. Perception of the teaching-learning process was assessed through the Interactive Assessment of Teaching Learning Process Scale, IATLP (2009), shown to have consistent psychometric properties. Results. Overall, there was a significant effect of the level of academic confidence on perception of the teaching-learning process. More specifically, there was a significant effect of the level of academic confidence on the level of students¿ satisfaction with the learning process. Likewise, gender had a significant effect on self-regulated learning, in favor of the female students. As for interactions, greater levels of academic confidence in the female students were associated with a perception of the teaching as more regulatory. However, greater academic confidence in male students did not result in the perception of more regulatory teaching. The license for this PDF is unlimited except that no part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted commercially in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services. 94 Jesús de la Fuente and Paul Sander Discussion. The most interesting effect¿which re-appears in several later results¿is the interaction of the level of academic confidence and gender. This effect has been given the label ¿delta effect¿ by the authors. Its importance for understanding university teaching and learning is discussed in terms of the variables analyzed.

The DEDEPRO® Model, having emerged from the 3P Model of Presage-ProcessProduct, makes the contribution of other specific interaction relationships among the presage variables (personal self-regulation), process variables (design and development of regulated teaching and learning) and product variables (satisfaction, performance and competencies). Such relationships can help us analyze with greater precision the different interaction typologies that are present in the teaching and learning processes of Higher Education. The objective of this chapter is two-fold. The first aim is to analyze and delimit possible hypothetical relationships, based on existing empirical evidence. The second aim is to establish the implications of such relations for analyzing and improving the design and development of the teaching-learning process in Higher Education, so as to ensure a good product (satisfaction and performance), according to the different types of students and different types of interactions that may be produced in this sphere.