El cambio climático (CC) es un tema cada vez más protagonista en los medios de comunicación y en las redes sociales, fuentes valiosas de información que contribuyen al debate de asuntos de actualidad. Facebook es la red social con más usuarios del mundo y, además, propicia la movilización, lo que la convierte en una plataforma de gran interés para el estudio de las estrategias de comunicación del CC. El objetivo de este trabajo es conocer el contenido de los mensajes sobre el CC publicados en Facebook por usuarios destacados: relevancia del tema en el conjunto de las publicaciones, objetivos perseguidos, tipo de discurso y emociones asociadas a los mensajes. Tras validar una selección de 10 cuentas (Greta Thunberg, Donald Trump, Scott Morrison, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Extinction Rebellion USA, Justin Trudeau, Bernie Sanders, United Nations, Extinction Rebellion UK y Jane Fonda), la metodología empleada fue el análisis de con-tenido aplicado a los mensajes sobre CC (n = 599) publicados en Facebook por las cuentas seleccionadas entre el 1 de noviembre de 2019 y el 10 de enero de 2020, periodo que comprende la Cumbre del Clima de Madrid (COP 25, celebrada María-Carmen Erviti https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1588-0955Universidad de NavarraISSA School of Management Assistants31009 Pamplona, Españamcerviti@unav.esNote: This article can be read in its English original version on:https://revista.profesionaldelainformacion.com/index.php/EPI/article/view/86552Bienvenido León https://orc

A massive ¿infodemic¿ developed in parallel with the global COVID-19 pandemic and contributed to public misinformation at a time when access to quality information was crucial. This research aimed to analyze the science and health-related hoaxes that were spread during the pandemic with the objectives of (1) identifying the characteristics of the form and content of such false information, and the platforms used to spread them, and (2) formulating a typology that can be used to classify the different types of hoaxes according to their connection with scientific information. The study was conducted by analyzing the content of hoaxes which were debunked by the three main fact-checking organizations in Spain in the three months following WHO¿s announcement of the pandemic (N = 533). The results indicated that science and health content played a prominent role in shaping the spread of these hoaxes during the pandemic. The most common hoaxes on science and health involved information on scientific research or health management, used text, were based on deception, used real sources, were international in scope, and were spread through social networks. Based on the analysis, we proposed a system for classifying science and health-related hoaxes, and identified four types according to their connection to scientific knowledge: ¿hasty¿ science, decontextualized science, badly interpreted science, and falsehood without a scientific basis.

We presented 867 participants with one of two videos about climate change that differed only in terms of whether they had an infotainment or expository narration. They were available in either English or Spanish. The participants consisted of two distinct clusters: one in which all were over 30 with a university degree, and another dominated by younger participants without a university degree. The infotainment version produced a significantly reduced perception of the seriousness of climate change for the planet in the latter cluster. Furthermore, viewers of the English versions, who were predominantly residents in countries with low-context cultures, perceived the risk of climate change for the planet to be significantly higher after watching the video with the expository narration. Using infotainment for science communication is a two-edged sword: while it may help engagement, making light of a topic can reduce perceptions about its seriousness. We suggest that the use of infotainment should be determined by the aims of the communicators and the nature of the target audience. If the purpose is simply to convey information, then infotainment is likely to be the most effective and it has the additional benefit of engaging recipients that lack a university education. However, if the purpose is to affect attitudes and persuade an audience, then an expository narration is likely to be most effective.

Climate change communication on social media plays a prominent role in efforts undertaken by state agencies, NGOs, and international organizations, to make citizens aware of this phenomenon. The images used to communicate climate change are of great importance, since they can help to effectively raise citizen awareness. Building upon news values theory and the concept of availability heuristics, this research paper aims to identify principles that can be used for effective visual communication of climate change on social media on a cross-national scale, based upon analyses of characteristics of images that foster interaction on Twitter. We conducted a content analysis of a random selection of images (photographs, illustrations, and graphics, n = 380), posted on Twitter that were included in the so-called 'top tweets' about climate change. The results indicate that the types of images that are used on social media are relatively similar to those employed by conventional media, although images of identifiable people are less frequently shown on social media. We also deduced that four practical principles are especially relevant to foster user interaction on Twitter through images: (i) show 'real people' (i.e. non-staged images of people that transmit real emotions), (ii) tell a story, (iii) include a local connection, and (iv) show impacts or actions by people who are directly affected. These practical principles are based on the more general principles of meaningfulness and personification, two foundations that can help to overcome some of the main barriers to citizens' perception of climate change as a relevant issue with serious consequences in their lives. Campaigns on social media that use imagery based on these practical and general principles can be effective in communicating the shared responsibility to address climate change. This can have a relevant impact on social perception, since it can encourage citizens to care about climate, which is regarded as necessary to increase participation in climate action. Key policy insights Social media can play a prominent role in campaigns to make citizens aware of climate change. Images can help to effectively raise citizen awareness of climate change. Four practical principles can be effective in increasing user interaction on social media with images about climate: show 'real' people, tell a story, include a local connection, and show people who are directly affected. Visual campaigns based on the more general principles of meaningfulness and personification can be effective in representing climate change as a relevant issue in citizens' lives. These practical and more general principles can have a relevant impact on the social perception of climate change and increase citizen participation in climate debate and action.

Following the declaration, in March 2020, of the Covid-19 pandemic, there was an escalation of disinformation, involving multiple actors and reaching global dimensions. In this article, we analyze the possible causes and characteristics of the spread of disinformation on this issue. Disinformation about science can be explained by the distance that separates scientific knowledge from common knowledge and the difficult relationship between science and the media. The pandemic has multiplied the number of scientific publications and has accelerated publication rates, which has contributed to the dissemination of provisional, erroneous, or totally false information. A process of politicization has also developed, which has led to misinformation. In addition, the need to confront this health crisis has led society to demand accurate information from science, despite the fact that in many cases there is only uncertainty. The experience of this pandemic highlights the importance of providing citizens with accessible and rigorous knowledge that creates confidence in science. To achieve this, it is necessary to have specialized professionals capable of providing rigorous information, not only on the results but also on the research processes.

Climate change attitudes and perceptions vary significantly among countries and cultures through a host of factors. Within media content about climate change, framing is one of the most relevant elements. This research interrogated how framing combinations across local-global and gain-loss frames influence attitudes and perceptions about climate change. We examined varying framing approaches through case-study experimentation with university students in Spain (N = 120). Students viewed one of four videos, each one based on a different combination of frames before answering a set of survey questions, with the aim of testing (i) how do the combinations of the local-global and the gain-loss frames affect the perception of the seriousness of climate change and (ii) how do combinations of the four frames affect support for action to address climate change. Results indicate that the participants scored similar values, regarding the seriousness of climate change and the need to take action, regardless of the video they watched. This means that interaction effects and other contextual factors (e.g., previous environmental concerns) may limit efficacy of deliberately introduced frames more than previously considered. These findings help to further deepen and nuance possible explanations for wider discursive interactions that comprise our attitudes and perceptions of climate change.

Este artículo examina si los contenidos de YouTube sobre el cambio climático contribuyen a que se generen nuevas propuestas de comunicación, con voces y enfoques distintos, lo que implicaría una mejor información de los ciudadanos y podría facilitar su implicación y participación en la toma de medidas necesarias para enfrentar el problema (decisiones de consumo, presión a los políticos para que adopten medidas, etc.), o si, por el contrario, se han amplificado las voces que, en general, predominan en los medios, como las de los políticos. Mediante un análisis de contenido, este estudio analiza la representación del cambio climático en los vídeos más populares en YouTube. Tras examinar una muestra de 288 vídeos difundidos durante el periodo octubre 2016-octubre 2017, se constata que los políticos, como el expresidente estadounidense Donald Trump, son las voces más citadas en las piezas de YouTube sobre cambio climático, seguidas de periodistas y científicos. Respecto de los productores de esos vídeos, los medios de comunicación ocupan un lugar privilegiado de popularidad. Incluso, parte de sus contenidos se reutilizan total o parcialmente por otros usuarios de la plataforma. La vocación principal de los mensajes es informativa, con un discurso enfocado, sobre todo, en las consecuencias del cambio climático en los países desarrollados.

Dada la importancia de los contextos nacionales para adecuar la comunicación del cambio climático a cada país, esta investigación tuvo por objetivo averiguar si la cobertura realizada por los medios españoles es diferente de la de otros países en volumen de artículos, temas y fuentes. Realizamos un análisis de contenido de publicaciones en línea (n=527) sobre la cumbre del clima de París (COP21, 2015) en 13 medios de cinco países: Estados Unidos y Reino Unido (del bloque anglosajón), y Alemania, Francia y España (de la Europa continental). Los resultados indican que la cobertura realizada en España difiere notablemente de la de los otros países, incluidos los de Europa continental. El alineamiento ideológico de los medios españoles no parece afectar al volumen de cobertura sobre el cambio climático, como ocurre en el ámbito internacional. Estos resultados permiten matizar las conclusiones de investigaciones previas y proponer recomendaciones para la cobertura mediática en España.

Se presenta un análisis de contenido de todos los bulos (N=292) relacionados con la pandemia Covid-19 identificados por las tres plataformas de verificación acreditadas en España, durante el primer mes del estado de alarma decretado por el Gobierno (14 marzo 2020 ¿ 13 abril 2020). El estudio muestra que los bulos sobre el coronavirus fueron diseminados principalmente en las redes sociales y, entre ellas, sobre todo en las cerradas, como la aplicación móvil de mensajería WhatsApp. También detecta las particularidades formales y de contenido más frecuentes de los contenidos falsificados. Los resultados revelan que la pandemia, además de generar un gran número de bulos sobre salud y ciencia, casi un tercio de la muestra, también propició la difusión de numerosos contenidos falsos de tema político y gubernamental. El artículo explora los formatos, fuentes y territorios de procedencia de los bulos. Más allá de sus resultados empíricos, este estudio realiza contribuciones teóricas en el marco de los emergentes estudios sobre desórdenes informativos. En concreto, aporta una definición propia de bulo, así como una tipología en la que se identifican cuatro tipos de bulos: broma, exageración, descontextualización y engaño. A partir de esos cuatro tipos, se propone un `diagrama de gravedad de los bulos¿.

Online video has become a relevant tool to disseminate scientific information to the public. However, in this arena, science coexists with non-scientific or pseudoscientific beliefs that can influence people¿s knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. Our research sets out to find empirical evidence of the representation of pro-science, anti-science and neutral stances in online videos. From a search on Google videos, we conducted content analysis of a sample of videos about climate change, vaccines and nanotechnology (n = 826). Results indicate that a search through Google videos provides a relatively small representation of videos with an anti-science stance, which can be regarded as positive, given the high potential influence of this search engine in spreading scientific information among the public. Our research also provides empirical evidence of the fact that an anti-science stance is more frequent in user-generated content than in videos disseminated by other types of producers.

Internet y las redes sociales han democratizado la comunicación de contenidos sobre salud y han multiplicado la difusión pública de informaciones relacionadas con ese tema. Muchas de las informaciones sanitarias proceden de fuentes acreditadas y son plenamente solventes, lo que permite a la ciudadanía acceder fácilmente a información de calidad que promueve comportamientos responsables. Sin embargo, al mismo tiempo, en las redes circulan cada vez más contenidos sobre salud de procedencia desconocida y fiabilidad dudosa. Buena parte de esos mensajes son, de hecho, intencionadamente engañosos. Las redes, en definitiva, son una moneda de dos caras: dan acceso a contenidos sanitarios de calidad, pero exponen asimismo a la ciudadanía a diversos riesgos. Esta guía pretende desarrollar y divulgar pautas que sirvan para contrarrestar el feno¿meno de la desinformación en materia de salud.

Recoge los principales resultados generados durante la realización del proyecto LIFE+RESPIRA, llevado a cabo en la ciudad de Pamplona (Navarra, España) por un equipo interdisciplinar constituido por más de 30 investigadores pertenecientes a la Universidad de Navarra, el Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT) y Gestión Ambiental de Navarra (GAN-NIK). El libro, que se ha publicado en castellano y en inglés, se ha dividido en 7 capítulos: 1. ¿Ciudades sostenibles? 2. Exposición de los ciudadanos a la contaminación atmosférica 3. Papel de la vegetación urbana en la calidad del aire 4. Modelos de alta resolución para evaluar la calidad del aire 5. Impactos de la contaminación urbana 6. Movilidad y sostenibilidad urbanas 7. Comunicación y educación ambiental. Este libro pretende ser una guía de utilidad para científicos, gestores y ciudadanos, aportando un conjunto de herramientas que permitan mejorar la calidad de vida de nuestras ciudades. Además, quiere rendir un homenaje a todos los voluntarios ciclistas que han participado en dicho proyecto y que son los verdaderos artífices del mismo, ya que gracias a su dedicación incondicional durante más de dos años, han proporcionado una cantidad ingente de datos sobre la calidad del aire de la ciudad de Pamplona.

This book collects the main outcomes that were generated during the implementation of the LIFE+RESPIRA project (LIFE13 ENV/ES/000417), carried out in the city of Pamplona, Navarra, Spain. The research was conducted by a cross-functional team made up of more than 30 researchers belonging to three entities: The University of Navarra, the Centre for Energy, Environmental and Technological Research (CIEMAT) and Environmental Management of Navarra (GAN-NIK).

In recent years, the term `fake news¿ has become popular as a paradigm of mis- and disinformation. The term tends to put this phenomenon within the framework of media organizations. However, the problem is more complex, since it also involves other entities dedicated to deliberately producing and spreading falsehoods, as well as social networks and large internet platforms that work as global carriers of such misleading content. This chapter analyzes the evolution of disinformation in this expanded framework, contextualizing the production, dissemination and consumption of deceptive content beyond the media. Drawing upon a historical review of the mis- and disinformation phenomena over the last few centuries, it examines the more recent transformation experienced by purposefully false content on the internet and big data ecosystem.

Los medios audiovisuales juegan un papel estelar en la comunicación de la ciencia. Según las encuestas, la televisión y los vídeos en Internet son dos de los principales medios de información sobre ciencia para los ciudadanos españoles. Y este dato no es sorprendente si consideramos la enorme potencia comunicativa que tienen las imágenes en movimiento, ya que pueden transmitir el conocimiento científi co mediante formas narrativas que resultan asequibles y amenas. En España existe una larga tradición de comunicación audiovisual de la ciencia. El cine, la televisión y, más recientemente, el vídeo online han desempeñado un papel fundamental en el acceso del público al conocimiento. Pero, a pesar de su importancia, son todavía escasos los estudios sobre esta parcela de la historia de la comunicación de la ciencia en España. Este artículo pretende abrir brecha en un campo de estudio apenas explorado. Tratamos de ofrecer una visión diacrónica, centrada en el trabajo de algunos de los más destacados comunicadores audiovisuales, así como en las principales tendencias que se vislumbran en este proceso de comunicación audiovisual de la ciencia en España. Sin ánimo de exhaustividad, tratamos de abarcar dos ámbitos próximos e igualmente relevantes. Primero, el de la información de actualidad; es decir, el periodismo audiovisual propiamente dicho, cuyos primeros ejemplos se encuentran en los noticiarios cinematográficos. Y segundo, los contenidos divulgativos audiovisuales que llegaron

Despite the potential of interactive video and sophisticated new narrative choices beyond the sequential asymmetrical restrictions encountered in historical analogue modes of AV representation, online science video has not (yet) lived up to the promise. In their conclusion, León and Bourk discuss several reasons for the limited presence of interactive innovations in online science video content, including the migration of television content and production sources to the Internet, as well as the low production quality of much user-generated content opting for more `authentic¿ amateur-styles that suit limited budgets. Notwithstanding the limited evidence of innovation, there are encouraging developments including vlogs, webdocs and animated video, such as stop-motion innovations, ideally suited for short-length formats.

This chapter examines online science video to identify the presence and function of entertainment, noting its long history in television content. Major entertainment and infotainment devices - stories, humour, images and celebrities - are discussed as communication devices that television content producers use to make science more accessible to mass audiences. Next, the authors examine how the four entertainment elements are incorporated in online videos. From a content analysis of 826 videos the authors draw tentative conclusions associated with the extent of the use of entertainment elements in the representation of three contemporary scientific topics ¿ climate change, nanotechnology and vaccine immunization. Specific attention is given to: identifying the content producers (e.g. science institutions, television companies, user content generators) most likely to use entertainment in online productions; how topic selection might influence the use of entertainment to communicate the science; and, which entertainment elements are most prevalent in online science videos. The findings suggest although entertainment and infotainment are rarely the sole communication purpose in online science video, many online content creators incorporate one or two elements to communicate serious messages.

Climate change is considered to be one of the most important issues of our time. But, in spite of its relevance, it is often perceived as a remote process with little incidence in daily life. This perception is closely related to the way media represent climate change, and the way it is framed becomes a key element, since framing allows the audience to interpret the issue. This chapter discusses the results of a content analysis of 300 online videos on climate change, which sheds light on the main themes and the use of the gain and loss frames. Results indicate that the ecologic-meteorological and the scientific frames were prevalent. In addition, the loss frame prevails over the gain frame. This shows that online videos follow framing patterns that are similar to those used by traditional media, thus replicating the representation problems that researchers have underlined.

This introductory chapter presents and overview of the role of online video in science communication. The digital environment offers a new range of options for communicating science to the public, which acquire increasing relevance in the new paradigm of ¿science with society¿. In the early 21st century, online video has grown exponentially, to the point of accounting for over 70% of internet global traffic. Consequently it has become a tool of enormous potential capacity for communicating science. However, academic research in this area is still scarce. This chapter summarizes some of the main findings of the Videonline project, an international study conducted by 15 researchers from nine universities across five countries, which provides an updated analysis of the current panorama of online video as a tool to communicate science and technology.