Impedance spectroscopy analysis (IS) has awakened a great interest for many industrial applications and sectors for the implementation of novel monitoring capabilities. More specifically, microelectrode-based sensors are increasingly being used to analyze electrical or electrochemical changes in liquid samples, as well as other effects such as biofouling, particle adhesion, etc. However, real environmental conditions are usually subjected physiochemical changes that affect the impedance measurement. In this context, it is difficult to isolate the effect of only one parameter (Le., conductivity of the medium) from the other ones. This work is focused specifically on the analysis of the influence of temperature and pH on the impedance measurements. Different experiments were carried out using interdigitated microelectrodes (IDE) sensors for a geometry range in wine samples to adjust a proposed mathematical model of the impedance behavior. In the case of fermentation processes of alcoholic beverages, this methodology will help to isolate the chemical changes measured by impedance from temperature or pH variation. This model also provides the significance of the effect of each parameter on the impedance values. After the experimental validation, the model was used to correct the impedance values accordingly to the variation of each parameter showing its applicability to the real field. Finally, the proposed methodology can be easily applied and extended to other environments and sensors types. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Brettanomyces is a yeast species responsible for wine and cider spoilage, producing volatile phenols that result in off-odors and loss of fruity sensorial qualities. Current commercial detection methods for these spoilage species are liable to frequent false positives, long culture times and fungal contamination. In this work, an interdigitated (IDE) biosensor was created to detect Brettanomyces using immunological reactions and impedance spectroscopy analysis. To promote efficient antibody immobilization on the electrodes¿ surface and to decrease non-specific adsorption, a Self-Assembled Monolayer (SAM) was developed. An impedance spectroscopy analysis, over four yeast strains, confirmed our device's increased efficacy. Compared to label-free sensors, antibody biosensors showed a higher relative impedance. The results also suggested that these biosensors could be a promising method to monitor some spoilage yeasts, offering an efficient alternative to the laborious and expensive traditional methods.

Brettanomyces bruxellensis is considered one of the most relevant spoilage yeasts in the production of alcoholic beverages, especially for wine and cider. During fermentation and later storage, these yeasts can cause changes in the characteristics of the product, ruining the aroma and taste. The presence of Brettanomyces causes a decrease in the quality of the final products and important economic losses. The current work presents a detection method based on impedance spectroscopy analysis using label-free interdigitated microelectrode (IDE) based sensors for spoilage yeast detection. Different conditions (static and stirring) were tested in Brettanomyces cultures inside reactors in order to evaluate the growth behavior. Our results indicate a faster response and an 8% increase of the relative variation of the impedance under stirring condition due to biofilm formation onto the surface of the sensors. Equivalent circuit analysis also confirmed that the difference was caused by the larger biofilm formation under dynamic conditions. The results suggest that this technology could be applied for the early detection of spoilage yeast in wine and cider industries, providing more efficient methods to achieve a higher quality of the final products. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Microfluidic devices are becoming mainstream tools to recapitulate in vitro the behavior of cells and tissues. In this study, we use microfluidic devices filled with hydrogels of mixed collagen-Matrigel composition to study the migration of lung cancer cells under different cancer invasion microenvironments. We present the design of the microfluidic device, characterize the hydrogels morphologically and mechanically and use quantitative image analysis to measure the migration of H1299 lung adenocarcinoma cancer cells in different experimental conditions. Our results show the plasticity of lung cancer cell migration, which turns from mesenchymal in collagen only matrices, to lobopodial in collagen-Matrigel matrices that approximate the interface between a disrupted basement membrane and the underlying connective tissue. Our quantification of migration speed confirms a biphasic role of Matrigel. At low concentration, Matrigel facilitates migration, most probably by providing a supportive and growth factor retaining environment. At high concentration, Matrigel slows down migration, possibly due excessive attachment. Finally, we show that antibody-based integrin blockade promotes a change in migration phenotype from mesenchymal or lobopodial to amoeboid and analyze the effect of this change in migration dynamics, in regards to the structure of the matrix. In summary, we describe and characterize a robust microfluidic platform and a set of software tools that can be used to study lung cancer cell migration under different microenvironments and experimental conditions. This platform could be used in future studies, thus benefitting from the advantages introduced by microfluidic devices: precise control of the environment, excellent optical properties, parallelization for high throughput studies and efficient use of therapeutic drugs.

Cancer is a leading cause of mortality in the world, with osteosarcoma being one of the most common types among children between 1 and 14 years old. Current treatments including preoperative chemotherapy, surgery and postoperative chemotherapy produce several side effects with limited effectiveness. The use of lipid nanoparticles as biodegradable shells for controlled drug delivery shows promise as a more effective and targeted tumor treatment. However, in vitro validation of these vehicles is limited due to fluid stagnation in current techniques, in which nanoparticles sediment onto the bottom of the wells killing the cells by asphyxiation. In the current series of experiments, results obtained with methotrexate-lipid nanoparticles under dynamic assay conditions are presented as a promising alternative to current free drug based therapies. Effects on the viability of the U-2 OS osteosarcoma cell line of recirculation of cell media, free methotrexate and blank and methotrexate containing lipid nanoparticles in a 11 mu M concentration were successfully assessed. In addition, several designs for the microfluidic platform used were simulated using COMSOL-Multiphysics, optimized devices were fabricated using soft-lithography and simulated parameters were experimentally validated. Nanoparticles did not sediment to the bottom of the platform, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed system. Moreover, encapsulated methotrexate was the most effective treatment, as after 72 h the cell population was reduced nearly 40% while under free methotrexate circulation the cell population doubled. Overall, these results indicate that methotrexate-lipid nanoparticles are a promising targeted therapy for osteosarcoma treatment.

Bacterial biofilms led to numerous problems in a wide variety of sectors as the medical environment, the food and water industry, or the naval sector. Completely developed biofilms are nearly impossible to eliminate due to the high antibiotic resistance these complex systems present. The lack of evidential indicators of their presence at the first stages of development makes antimicrobial treatments late and inadequate. Therefore, it is necessary to find new methods for the early detection of biofilm development in order to improve the efficiency of treatments by exposing bacterial cells before encapsulation in the extracellular matrix. For this purpose, this paper presents a real-time analysis of bacterial adhesion and biofilm growth by means of electrochemical measurements. Cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry were performed with thin-film interdigitated microelectrode-based sensors. More sensitive and selective measurements were obtained with the second technique. Bacterial adhesion was detected 1 h after the initial inoculum, and three different redox centers were identified on bacterial surfaces. Finally, bacterial biofilm growth phases (lag, exponential, and stationary) were identified through the electrochemical measurements.

A surface sensor has been developed in order to record the cortical activity in animal models for neuro-science research. The device is made of gold on Cyclic Olefin Polymer (COP) and Cyclic Olefin Copolymer (COC) soft polymers using microsystems technology. The resulting system is flexible, customizable, bio-compatible, and fulfills reproducibility standards during the manufacturing process. Impedances are in the range of 100k Omega, thus making the system suitable for recording field potentials on the cortical surface. This paper explains the implementation process together with the implantation procedures and the results obtained in behaving rats. Results show that COP-based sensors are preferable to COC due to their higher flexibility and ease of manipulation. The versatility of COP polymers offers the possibility to adapt the electrode array to the cortical surface thus increasing surface of contact with the brain tissue. To validate the current approach, 8-contact sensors were implanted bilaterally over the motor cortices of awake, free moving rats. Cortical activity was evaluated on free moving animals and under the effect of different drugs. The quality and features of the recordings was in accordance with that of the current state of art systems thus demonstrating the feasibility of using COP-based systems for electrophysiological recordings in experimental investigation.

The integration of 3D microfluidic structures to enhance surface-sample interaction with microfluidic enclosed biosensors is reported. The method was tested in a device with a microfluidic network made from polydimethylsiloxane ( PDMS), fabricated using a double layer mold technique. As an intermediate step before the tests, a self-assembled monolayer (SAM), which acted as a ligand for 252-nm amine-coated fluorescent polystyrene particles, was formed on top of a gold layer. The results showed that the microstructures produced an increase of coverage of the sensing areas up to 67% which, combined with the property of the SAM of binding with different biological molecules, provide a potential method to enhance the sensitivity of a wide range of multipurpose microfluidic biosensors.

This paper describes the design, implementation and validation of a sensitive and integral technology solution for endotoxin detection. The unified and portable platform is based on the electrochemical detection of endotoxins using a synthetic peptide immobilized on a thin-film biosensor. The work covers the fabrication of an optimized sensor, the biofunctionalization protocol and the design and implementation of the measuring and signalling elements (a microfluidic chamber and a portable potentiostat-galvanostat), framed ad hoc for this specific application. The use of thin-film technologies to fabricate the biosensing device and the application of simple immobilization and detection methods enable a rapid, easy and sensitive technique for in situ and real time LPS detection.

Bacterial biofilms are presented in many different environments causing a wide variety of infectious processes. Biofilms at their mature stage are difficult to eradicate because of their inherent resistance to antimicrobial agents. Easy-to-integrate and in situ detection tools would provide early detection of bacterial presence allowing efficient prophylactic actions. Impedance microbiology has been postulated as a suitable technique that allows monitoring of bacterial biofilm growths in real time. In this work four different culturing setups were developed as testing platforms for measuring real time microbiological cultures that could mimic real field environments. Results suggest that the position of the sensors in regard to the dynamic conditions of the culture might affect the sensitivity and the target parameter. Capacitance and resistance are associated to different biological effects, surface coating and conductivity changes respectively. Relative variations of electrical parameters were recorded in the lab obtaining significant changes in few hours post-infection. It has been proven that biological coating cause largest variations in capacitance, up to 60%, while metabolic activity affects more the resistance giving a variation up to 15%. Fitting analysis has confirmed experimental results showing also the effect of the dead/alive ratio. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this paper, a biological protocol for endotoxin detection has been developed and optimized by quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). The parameters involved in the formation of the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) have been analyzed, and a study of the pH of the ligand buffer has been performed in order to find the best condition for the ligand immobilization and, in consequence, for the endotoxin detection. The detection limit obtained with the characterized biological protocol corresponds to 1.90 mu g/ml. The effectiveness of the optimized biological protocol has been analyzed by cyclic voltammetry analysis.

In this paper, the implementation and characterization of a hand-held and simple biosensor for in-situ endotoxin determination are described. The integrated biosensor developed here is based on the electrochemical detection of endotoxin using polymyxin B as bioreceptor immobilized onto gold electrodes via a self-assembled monolayer. The cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy were used to characterize the biosensor performance and properties throughout the functionalization process. In addition, a comparative analysis of the behavior and features of two alternative electrochemical techniques for endotoxin detection was carried out. The biosensing device fabricated by thin-film technologies provided a simple and robust method to detect low concentrations of endotoxin.

Impedance microbiology (IM) is a known technique that has been applied during the last decades to detect the presence of microorganisms in real samples in different fields: food industry, healthcare, environment, etc. Bacterial biofilms however have not been so far studied despite the fact that they are the most common microbiological formation and that they present resistance to antimicrobial agents. In situ early detection of bacterial biofilm is still a challenge nowadays that causes huge impact in many different scenarios. The ability to detect biofilm generation early will allow better and more efficient treatments preventing high costs and important problems. In this work a new performance of this technique with interdigitated microelectrode sensors (IDE) is proposed. A specific culturing setup where the sensors have been integrated in Petri Dishes has been developed. From the results it can be highlighted that low frequencies are more sensitive for detection than higher ones. The results achieved record variations of approximately 40% in the equivalent serial resistance after 10 h of culture. Electrical models have been successfully simulated to find the electrical behavior of the development of biofilms. Variations in both the capacitance and resistance were recorded during the growth of the microbes. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The current validated endotoxin detection methods, in spite of being highly sensitive, present several drawbacks in terms of reproducibility, handling and cost. Therefore novel approaches are being carried out in the scientific community to overcome these difficulties. Remarkable efforts are focused on the development of endotoxin-specific biosensors. The key feature of these solutions relies on the proper definition of the capture protocol, especially of the bio-receptor or ligand. The aim of the presented work is the screening and selection of a synthetic peptide specifically designed for LPS detection, as well as the optimization of a procedure for its immobilization onto gold substrates for further application to biosensors.

Lab on a chip (LOC) systems provide interesting and low-cost solutions for key studies and applications in the biomedical field. Along with microfluidics, these microdevices make single-cell manipulation possible with high spatial and temporal resolution. In this work we have designed, fabricated and characterized a versatile and inexpensive microfluidic platform for on-chip selective single-cell trapping and treatment using laminar co-flow. The combination of co-existing laminar flow manipulation and hydrodynamic single-cell trapping for selective treatment offers a cost-effective solution for studying the effect of novel drugs on single-cells. The operation of the whole system is experimentally simple, highly adaptable and requires no specific equipment. As a proof of concept, a cytotoxicity study of ethanol in isolated hepatocytes is presented. The developed microfluidic platform controlled by means of co-flow is an attractive and multipurpose solution for the study of new substances of high interest in cell biology research. In addition, this platform will pave the way for the study of cell behavior under dynamic and controllable fluidic conditions providing information at the individual cell level. Thus, this analysis device could also hold a great potential to easily use the trapped cells as sensing elements expanding its functionalities as a cell-based biosensor with single-cell resolution. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Central venous catheters (CVC) are commonly used in clinical practice to improve a patient's quality of life. Unfortunately, there is an intrinsic risk of acquiring an infection related to microbial biofilm formation inside the catheter lumen. It has been estimated that 80 % of all human bacterial infections are biofilm-associated. Additionally, 50 % of all nosocomial infections are associated with indwelling devices. Bloodstream infections account for 30-40 % of all cases of severe sepsis and septic shock, and are major causes of morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis of bloodstream infections must be performed promptly so that adequate antimicrobial therapy can be started and patient outcome improved. An ideal diagnostic technology would identify the infecting organism(s) in a timely manner, so that appropriate pathogen-driven therapy could begin promptly. Unfortunately, despite the essential information it provides, blood culture, the gold standard, largely fails in this purpose because time is lost waiting for bacterial or fungal growth. This work presents a new design of a venous access port that allows the monitoring of the inner reservoir surface by means of an impedimetric biosensor. An ad-hoc electronic system was designed to manage the sensor and to allow communication with the external receiver. Historic data recorded and stored in the device was used as the reference value for the detection of bacterial biofilm. The RF communication system sends an alarm signal to the external receiver when a microbial colonization of the port occurs. The successful in vitro analysis of the biosensor, the electronics and the antenna of the new indwelling device prototype are shown. The experimental conditions were selected in each case as the closest to the clinical working conditions for the smart central venous catheter (SCVC) testing. The results of this work allow a new generation of this kind of device that could potentially provide more efficient treatments for catheter-related infections.

Bacterial biofilms are a common cause of persistent and chronic infections, mostly related to implantable devices. In this context, Staphylococcus species are the most relevant microorganisms involved in causing high costs for the healthcare system. New diagnostic and/or therapeutic tools should be developed by providing in vivo analysis of the specific physiological parameters directly related to the status of the indwelling device. Monitoring the biofilm's biological evolution will allow an earlier diagnostic. Impedance microbiology is suggested as a proper technique for directly measuring the development of bacterial biofilms generated inside intravascular catheters. In this study we propose interdigitated microelectrode biosensors be integrated within those implantable devices. In vitro assays have been carried out in order to characterize this methodology as a detection and monitoring tool for bacterial biofilm development. Impedance spectroscopy (IS) was implemented in 96-well microtiter plates, leading to positive results in detecting and monitoring bacterial biofilm development. Two Staphylococcus aureus and two Staphylococcus epidermidis strains were successfully monitored during a 20-h culture, and results show that the low range of the frequency is the most suitable setting for measuring the maximum relative changes. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this paper an electrochemical endotoxin biosensor consisting of an immobilized lipopolysaccharide (LPS) ligand, polymyxin B (PmB), is presented. Several parameters involved both in the device fabrication and in the detection process were analyzed to optimize the ligand immobilization and the interaction between PmB and LPS, aiming at increasing the sensitivity of the sensor. Di?erent electrochemical pre-treatment procedures as well as the functionalization methods were studied and evaluated. The use of a SAM (self-assembled monolayer) to immobilize PmB and the quanti?cation of the interactions via cyclic voltammetry allowed the development of a robust and simple device for in situ detection of LPS. Thus, the biosensor proposed in this work intends an approach to the demanding needs of the market for an integrated, portable and simple instrument for endotoxin detection.

The development of a disposable electrochemical biosensor for selective Salmonella detection in presence of other pathogens is described. The device is based on thin-film gold electrodes and is fabricated employing standard microsystems technology. The method involves the immobilization of a thiolated capture probe able to hybridize with its complementary sequence (target). The hybridization event is detected using the ruthenium complex [Ru(NH3)(5)L](2+), where L is [3-(2-phenanthren-9-yl-vinyl)-pyridine]as electrochemical indicator. The combination of MEMS technology to fabricate electrodes with a predetermined configuration and the use of a hybridization redox indicator which interacts preferentially with dsDNA gear to the development of an approach that not only quantifies complementary target sequence, but also is selective to Salmonella in presence of other pathogens, which can act as potential interferents. In base of these results, a multianalyte detection platform including Salmonella, Lysteria and Escherichia coli has been developed. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Detection of device-associated infectious processes is still an important clinical challenge. Bacteria grow adhered to the device surfaces creating biofilms that are resistant to antimicrobial agents, increasing mortality and morbidity. Thus there is need of a surgical procedure to remove the indwelling infected device. The elevated cost of these procedures, besides patients discomfort and increased risks, highlights the need to develop more efficient, accurate and rapid detection methods. Biosensors integrated with implantable devices will provide an effective diagnostic tool. In vivo, rapid and sensitive detection of bacteria attached to the device surfaces will allow efficient treatments. Impedance spectroscopy technique would be an adequate tool to detect the adherence and the growth of the microorganism by monitoring the impedance characteristics. In this work a label-free interdigitated microelectrode (IDAM) biosensor has been developed to be integrated with implantable devices. Impedance characterization of Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms has been performed achieving electrical monitoring of the bacterial growths in a few hours from the onset of the infection. This pathogen represents the most common microorganism related to intravascular catheters associated infections. The experimental setup presented in this work, a modified CDC biofilm reactor, simulates the natural environment conditions for bacterial biofilm development. The results prove that the low range of frequency is the most suitable setting for monitoring biofilm development. Our findings prove the effectiveness of this technique which shows variations of 59% in the equivalent serial capacitance component of the impedance. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

One of the most remarkable procedures to immobilize some biological molecules onto surfaces is the use of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). The aim of this work is to analyse the influence of formation conditions in the detection capability of two different SAMs. With this purpose two techniques have been implemented: the Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation (QCM-D) and the Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). Thus, several parameters usually involved in the SAM protocols have been characterized, i.e. the nature of the thiolated acid. The influence of its concentration and incubation time has been also taken into account. For the validation of these biological layers, the polymyxin B sulfate salt (Pm B), as ligand, and the lipopolysaccharide (LPS), as analyte, have been used. It is demonstrated that both in the QCM and the SPR, the use of SAM improves significantly the detection and immobilization of the target compound and an optimum SAM formation protocol is provided. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

An immunomagnetic method for the selective and quantitative detection of biological species by means of a magnetoresistive biosensor and superparamagnetic particles has been optimized. In order to achieve this, a giant magnetoresistive [Co (5.10 nm)/Cu (2.47 nm)](20) multilayer structure has been chosen as the sensitive material, showing a magnetoresistance of 3.60% at 215 Oe and a sensitivity up to 0.19 Omega/Oe between 145 Oe and 350 Oe. The outward gold surface of the sensor is biofunctionalized with a Self-Assembled Monolayer (SAM). In addition, three different types of magnetic labels have been tested. 2 mu m diameter magnetic carriers (7.68 pg ferrite/particle) have shown the best response and they have induced a shift in the magnetoresistive hysteresis loops up to 9% at 175 Oe. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

An electrochemical DNA biosensor for the detection of carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (CEACAM5), a specific tumor marker for colorectal cancer, is presented. The biosensor based on microelectronicmechanical systems (MEMS) technology, consists of a three electrode configuration where the working electrode is a gold thin-film. The immobilization of the previously designed DNA capture probe is performed by self-assembled monolayer (SAM) technique, and it is hybridized with the complementary target. The formation of the biorecognition surface (SAM) and the detection of the hybridization event are characterized by two different electrochemical techniques: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), using potassium ferricyanide/ferrocyanide as redox couple. The differences in the charge transfer resistance (R-ct), capacitance (C), and in the redox signals of the potassium ferricyanide/ferrocyanide upon the hybridization, show that the biosensor presented is a rapid, low-cost, and effective tool for CEACAM5 detection. Moreover, the specificity in the hybridization event is demonstrated by exposing the biorecognition surface to a noncomplementary target.