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Población turística en el distrito de Gjirokastër, al sur del Albania [Pixabay]

▲ Población turística en el distrito de Gjirokastër, al sur del Albania [Pixabay]

ENSAYOJan Gallemí

El pasado 24 de noviembre de 2019 el gobierno francés de Enmanuel Macron lideró el veto, junto a otros estados como Dinamarca o los Países Bajos, a la adhesión de las naciones balcánicas de Albania y Macedonia del Norte a la Unión Europea. Según justifica el presidente de la Quinta República francesa, esto es debido a que el mayor número de refugiados económicos que entran en Francia son de los Balcanes, en concreto de la ya mencionada Albania. Este último país presentó su candidatura a la Unión Europea el 28 de abril de 2009 y el 24 de junio de 2014 se acordó por unanimidad de los 28 países de la UE otorgar a Albania el estatus de país candidato a la adhesión. Los motivos por los cuales se justifica ese rechazo vienen dados principalmente por motivos económicos y financieros[1]. También existe una ligera preocupación ante la diversidad que existe en la estructura etnográfica del país y los conflictos que esta podría ocasionar en un futuro, no solo dentro del propio país sino también en su relación con sus vecinos, ante todo con la cuestión de Kosovo y las relaciones con Grecia y Macedonia del Norte[2]. Sin embargo, otro aspecto que también ha sido explorado es el hecho de que la adhesión de Albania supondría la incorporación a la UE del primer estado en que la religión con más número de fieles es la islámica, en concreto de la rama suní. En este ensayo se procederá a analizar el impacto de dicho aspecto y observar cómo o hasta qué punto pueden conjugar o divergir los valores albaneses, principalmente por ser de religión primordialmente islámica, con aquellos en los que se fundamentan el proyecto común europeo.

Evolución del Islam en Albania

Hay que remontarse a la historia para tener en cuenta las causas por las cuales un país europeo como Albania ha desarrollado una estructura social en la cual la religión más profesada por parte de la población es la suní. Por la región geográfica en la que se halla, teóricamente sería más común pensar que Albania tendría un mayor porcentaje de población ortodoxa que suní[3]. El mismo caso se da con Kosovo y Bosnia-Herzegovina. En un principio esta región era mayoritariamente de religión cristiana ortodoxa en el sur (como la mayor parte de los estados balcánicos de hoy en día) debido al hecho de que constituía uno de los muchos territorios que conformaban el imperio Bizantino hasta el siglo XIII, cuando esta nación logró su independencia. Sin embargo, la razón por la cual el Islam está tan presente en Albania, a diferencia de sus estados vecinos, es que fue más influenciada en el aspecto religioso por el imperio Otomano, sucesor del Bizantino. Este cayó en 1453 y sus territorios fueron ocupados por los otomanos, un pueblo turco establecido en aquel momento sobre la península de Anatolia. Según historiadores como Vickers fue entre los siglos XVII y XVIII cuando gran parte de la población albanesa se convirtió al Islam[4]; la causa de ello, como indica a su vez John L. Esposito, fue que para las poblaciones albanesas cambiar de religión suponía librarse de los mayores impuestos que los cristianos debían pagar en el imperio Otomano[5].

La religión en Albania se fue moldeando desde entonces a través de los acontecimientos. Por lo que sabemos gracias a estudios como los de Gawrych en el siglo XIX, la sociedad albanesa se dividía entonces principalmente en tres grupos: católicos, ortodoxos y sunís (estos últimos representaban el 70% de la población). Durante este mismo siglo nacieron muchos de los nacionalismos conocidos de carácter europeo y en los Balcanes se inició la que se conoce como crisis del Este. Durante este periodo muchos pueblos balcánicos se sublevaron contra los otomanos, pero los albaneses, al identificarse con ellos por su religión, inicialmente se mantuvieron fieles al sultán[6]. Debido a este apoyo, se empezó a denominar peyorativamente a los albaneses musulmanes como “turcos”[7]. Esto provocó que el nacionalismo albanés se distanciara del emergente pan-islamismo otomano del sultán Abdualhmid II. De ahí surgió, según Endresen, un renacer nacional albanés denominado Rilindja, el cual buscó el apoyo de las potencias de Europa occidental[8].

Generalmente los movimientos independentistas balcánicos que surgieron en el siglo XIX reforzaron el sentimiento cristiano en contraposición al musulmán, pero en Albania no fue así; como indica Stoppel, tanto cristianos como musulmanes albaneses cooperaron en un objetivo nacional común[9]. Esto fomentó la convivencia entre ambas creencias (ya presente en tiempos anteriores) y permitió la diferenciación de este movimiento con el Helenismo[10]. Cabe destacar que en aquel momento en Albania los musulmanes y los cristianos estaban peculiarmente distribuidos territorialmente: en el norte había más cristianos católicos que no fueron tan influenciados por el imperio otomano y en el sur también predominaban ortodoxos por la frontera con Grecia. El 28 de noviembre de 1912 los albaneses, siendo acaudillados por Ismail Qemali, declararon finalmente la independencia.

El reconocimiento internacional de Albania por el Tratado de Londres supuso la imposición de una monarquía cristiana, lo que conllevó la indignación de los albaneses musulmanes, que según las estimaciones suponían el 80% de la población, y provocó la denominada revuelta islámica. La revuelta fue liderada por Essad Pasha Toptani, quien se declaraba como “salvador de Albania y del Islam” y se rodeó de clérigos descontentos. Sin embargo, durante el periodo de la Primera Guerra mundial, los nacionalistas albaneses se dieron cuenta enseguida de que las diferencias religiosas podrían ocasionar la fracturación del propio país y decidieron romper lazos con el mundo musulmán con la intención de poder tener “una Albania común”, lo que llevó a que Albania se declarara como un país sin religión oficial; esto permitió la formación de un gobierno con representación de las cuatro creencias religiosas principales: suní, bektashi, católica y ortodoxa. Las elites secularistas albanesas programaron una reforma del Islam que fuera más acorde con las tradiciones de Albania para que el país se diferenciase más de Turquía, y se nacionalizaron las instituciones religiosas. A partir de 1923 el Congreso Nacional Albanés acabó realizando los cambios desde una perspectiva muy semejante a la del liberalismo occidental. Las reformas más importantes fueron la supresión del hiyab y la ilegalización de la poligamia, y se implementó una forma distinta de orar que substituía el ritual del Salat. Pero el mayor cambio fue la substitución de la sharia por leyes semejantes a las occidentales.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial Albania fue ocupada por la Italia fascista y en 1944 acabó imponiéndose un régimen comunista bajo el liderazgo de Enver Hoxha. Este régimen comunista veía en las distintas creencias religiosas del país un peligro para mantener la seguridad del gobierno autoritario, y por ello declaró a Albania como el primer estado oficialmente ateo y propuso la persecución de las distintas prácticas religiosas. De esta manera se impusieron leyes represivas que impedían profesar las fe católica u ortodoxa, y prohibían a los musulmanes leer o poseer el Corán. En 1967 el gobierno demolió hasta 2.169 edificios de carácter religioso y el resto los transformó en edificios públicos. De 1.127 edificios que guardaban alguna relación con el Islam en aquella época, tan solo se conservan hoy en día unos 50, y en muy malas condiciones[11]. Se considera que el impacto de este tipo de persecución se vio reflejado en el incremento de no creyentes dentro de la población albanesa. Entre 1991 y 1992 una serie de protestas acabó con el régimen. En esta nueva Albania democrática, el Islam volvió a ser la religión predominante, pero se prefirió mantener la aconfesionalidad del estado para garantizar la armonía entre las distintas creencias.

Influencias del campo internacional

Teniendo en cuenta esa realidad de Albania de país con mayoría de población islámica, pasamos a analizar el impacto que supondría su adhesión a la Unión Europea y hasta qué punto los valores de ambas se contradicen o conjugan.

Para empezar, si todo esto se analiza desde una perspectiva basada en la teoría del “constructivismo”, como la propuesta por Helen Bull, puede verse cómo Albania desde los inicios de su historia ha sido un territorio cuya estructura social ha estado fuertemente influenciada por la interacción de los distintos actores internacionales. Durante los años en los que formaba parte del imperio Bizantino, absorbió en gran medida los valores ortodoxos; cuando fue ocupado por los otomanos, la mayor parte de su población adoptó la religión islámica. De la misma manera, durante la desotomanización de los Balcanes, el país adoptó corrientes de pensamiento político tales como el liberalismo debido a la influencia de las potencias de Europa occidental. Eso generó un ánimo de crear un gobierno constitucionalista y parlamentarista cuya visión de la política no se basara en ninguna moral religiosa[12]. También puede verse que el régimen comunista se impuso en un contexto común al de los demás estados de Europa del Este. A la par también volvió a la senda democrática como consecuencia de la caída de la URSS, aun a pesar de que Albania no mantuviera buenas relaciones con el Pacto de Varsovia desde el año 1961.

Desde que Albania presentó su candidatura a la UE, esos valores liberales se han vuelto a fortalecer. En concreto, Albania se esfuerza por mejorar sus infraestructuras y por erradicar la corrupción y el crimen organizado. Por lo que puede observarse que la sociedad albanesa siempre se adapta a ser parte de una organización supra gubernamental. Esto es un aspecto importante porque significa que lo más probable es que el país participe activamente en las propuestas realizadas por la Comisión europea, sin dejarse llevar por los valores sociales internos. No obstante, esto a su vez otorga un punto a favor de aquellos eurodiputados que alegaron que la decisión de veto se trataba de un error histórico. Puesto que si no se aliena con la UE, Albania podría alienarse con otros actores internacionales. Según los propios eurodiputados estos podrían ser Rusia o China.

Sin embargo, hay dos limitaciones ante esta afirmación. La primera es que desde 2012 Albania es miembro de la OTAN, por lo que en parte ya está alienada con Occidente en el aspecto militar. Pero importa más un segundo aspecto, y es que Albania ya intentó durante la Guerra fría alienarse con Rusia y China, pero comprobó que esto le suponía efectos negativos pues le constituía en un estado satélite. Por otro lado, y aquí es donde los valores islámicos entran en juego, Albania hoy en día forma parte de organizaciones de naturaleza islámica como la OIC (Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Por lo que el rechazo de la UE podría suponer el realineamiento de Albania con otros estados islámicos, como los árabes o Turquía. El propio gobierno de Turquía, actualmente liderado por el partido de Erdogan, posee una naturaleza neo-otomanista: pretende acercar a su influencia los estados que anteriormente constituyeron el imperio Otomano. Albania está siendo influenciada por ese neo-otomanismo y un rechazo europeo podría devolverla al seno de esta concepción[13]. Además, si se acerca a países árabes de Oriente Medio como Arabia Saudí, Albania correría el peligro de asimilar los valores islámicos de estos territorios[14], los cuales son incompatibles con los de la UE debido a que incumplen con buena parte de los artículos firmados en la Declaración Universal de Derechos de 1952.

Islam y Unión Europea

Otro aspecto sería plantearse ¿en qué aspectos se contradicen los valores islámicos con los de la UE? Generalmente la Unión Europea afirma estar en contra de la poligamia, la homofobia o las prácticas religiosas que se opongan a la dignidad de la persona. Esto ha generado, entre otras cosas, un potente debate interno de si el hiyab puede considerarse como una práctica personal que no debe impedirse legalmente. Muchos grupos feministas están en contra de este aspecto puesto que lo relacionan con el patriarcalismo familiar[15]; sin embargo, otros grupos de la UE afirman que se trata tan solo de una práctica personal e individual totalmente respetable y que su supresión sería un gesto de naturaleza islamofóbica. En cualquier caso, como ya se ha mencionado, Albania suprimió en 1923 tanto la poligamia como el uso del hiyab por no reflejar los valores del Islam en Albania[16]. En este aspecto se observa que aun siendo Albania un país de mayoría Islámica, este Islam está mucho más influenciado por las corrientes europeistas del mismo que por las orientales: es decir, un Islam adaptado a las costumbres europeas y cuyos valores se asemejan más actualmente a la de los estados balcánicos vecinos.

Algunos diputados europeos, generalmente de grupos pertenecientes a la ultraderecha, como bien podrían ser Ressamblement National o Alternativ für Deutschland, aseguran que los valores islámicos nunca serán compatibles con los europeos debido a que son de carácter expansionista y radical. El holandés Geert Wilders afirma que el Corán «es más antisemita que el Mein Kampf»[17]. En otras palabras, alegan que quienes profesan el Islam son incapaces de mantener buenas relaciones con otras confesiones debido a que en el propio Corán se habla de hacer la guerra al infiel a través de la Yihad. Y como ejemplo citan los ataques terroristas que el grupo islamista DAESH ha provocado durante la última década, como los perpetrados en París o Barcelona[18]. Pero habría que recordarles a estos grupos que un texto sagrado como es el Corán puede ser interpretado de muchas maneras y que aunque algunos grupos musulmanes crean en esta incompatibilidad de buenas relaciones con quienes piensan distinto, la mayoría de los musulmanes interpreta el Corán de una forma muy distinta, de igual manera que sucede con la Biblia, aunque unos grupos sumamente específicos se vuelvan irracionales.

Esto sucede claramente en Albania, donde desde su democratización en 1991 ha habido un proyecto nacional integrador de todos los ciudadanos, al margen de sus diferentes creencias. Más bien, a lo largo de su historia como país independiente en Albania solo ha habido un periodo de persecución religiosa y este fue a causa de la represión de un autoritarismo comunista. Una limitación que podría darse en este aspecto sería la revolución islámica que sufrió el país en 1912.  Pero cabe destacar que esta revolución, a pesar de su fuerte sentimiento islámico, sirvió para derribar un gobierno títere; después de ella no se aplicó ninguna ley que impusiera los valores islámicos sobre el resto. Por lo que cabe destacar que el modelo político de Albania es muy similar al expuesto por Rawls en su libro “Political Liberalism”, debido a que configura un estado con múltiples valores (aunque haya uno predominante), pero sus leyes no se redactan en base a ninguno de ellos, sino a unos valores comunes entre todos ellos basados en la razón[19]. Este modelo propuesto por Rawls es una de las bases fundacionales de la Unión Europea y Albania sería un estado que daría ejemplo de estos mismos valores[20]. Así lo afirmaba el sumo pontífice Francisco I en su visita en Tirana en 2014: “Albania demuestra que la convivencia pacífica entre ciudadanos pertenecientes a religiones diferentes es un camino que se puede recorrer de forma concreta y que produce armonía y libera las mejores fuerzas y la creatividad de un pueblo entero, transformando la simple convivencia en verdadera colaboración y fraternidad”[21]

Conclusiones

Puede concluirse que los valores de Albania como un estado de mayoría islámica no parecen ser divergentes a los de Europa Occidental y por ende de la Unión Europea. Albania es un estado aconfesional que respeta todas las creencias religiosas y anima a todos los individuos, independientemente de su fe, a participar de la vida política del país (lo cual tiene mucho mérito debido a la significativa diversidad religiosa que ha distinguido a Albania a lo largo de su historia). Además, el Islam en Albania es sumamente distinto al de otras regiones debido al impacto que tuvo la influencia europea en la región. No solo eso, sino que también el país parece muy dispuesto a colaborar con proyectos comunes. Lo único que, en el campo de los valores, llevaría a pensar que Albania no es apta para entrar en la UE sería que, del mismo modo como se vio influenciada por los actores que han interaccionado con ella a lo largo de su historia, vuelva serlo de nuevo por estados musulmanes de valores divergentes a los europeos. Pero este caso es más probable de darse si la Unión Europea rechazase a Albania, pues esta buscaría el amparo de otros aliados en el campo internacional.

Las implicaciones de la adhesión del primer estado con mayoría musulmana a la UE serían ciertamente ventajosas, puesto que fomentaría la variedad de pensamiento religioso dentro de la Unión y esto podría conducir a un mayor entendimiento entre las distintas creencias que la integran. Habría la posibilidad de una mayor presencia de diputados sunís en el Parlamento Europeo y ayudaría a potenciar la convivencia dentro de otros estados de la UE en base a lo hecho en Albania, como puede ser el caso de Francia, donde el 10 % de la población es musulmana. Cabe decir además que el comportamiento ejemplar multirreligioso de Albania debilitaría seriamente al euroscepticismo y además ayudaría a fomentar la concordia dentro de la región de los Balcanes. Como ha alegado Donald Tusk, hay que dar una perspectiva europea a los Balcanes y es del mayor interés para la UE que Albania se integre a ella.


[1] Lazaro, Ana; El Parlamento Europeo aprueba una resolución contra el veto a Macedonia del Norte y Albania;  euronews. ; última actualización: 24/10/2019

[2] Sputnik Mundo; La actitud de Occidente ante el fantasma de la 'Gran Albania' que preocupa a Moscú; Sputnik Mundo, 22/02/2018. Nota: Hay que tener cuidado a la hora de analizar esta fuente puesto que suele ser utilizada como método de propaganda rusa.

[3] «Third Opinion on Albania adopted on 23 November 2011». Strasbourg. 4 de junio de 2012.

[4] Vickers, Miranda (2011). The Albanians: a modern history. London: IB Tauris.

[5] Esposito, John; Yavuz, M. Hakan (2003). Turkish Islam and the secular state: The Gülen movement. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press

[6] Gawrych, George (2006). The crescent and the eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris.

[7] Karpat, Kemal (2001). The politicization of Islam: reconstructing identity, state, faith, and community in the late Ottoman state. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[8] Endresen, Cecilie (2011). "Diverging images of the Ottoman legacy in Albania". Berlin: Lit Verlag. pp. 37–52.

[9] Stoppel, Wolfgang (2001). Minderheitenschutz im östlichen Europa (Albanien). Cologne: Universität Köln.

[10] Gawrych, George (2006). The crescent and the eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913. London: IB Tauris.

[11] Nurja, Ermal (2012). "The rise and destruction of Ottoman Architecture in Albania: A brief history focused on the mosques". Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

[12] Albanian Constituition de 1998.

[13] Return to Instability: How migration and great power politics threaten the Western Balkans. European Council on Foreign Relations. 2015.

[14] Bishku, Michael (2013). "Albania and the Middle East".

[15] García Aller, Marta; Feministas contra el hiyab: "Europa está cayendo en la trampa islamista con el velo”

[16] Jazexhi, Olsi (2014). "Albania". In Nielsen, Jørgen; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet; Racius, Egdunas (eds.). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe: Volume 6. Leiden: Brill.

[17] EFE; El diputado holandés que comparó el Corán con el 'Mein Kampf' no retira sus palabras. La Vanguardia; 04/10/2010

[18] Khader, Bichara; Los musulmanes en Europa, la construcción de un “problema”; OpenMind BBVA

[19] Rawls, John; Political Liberalism; Columbia University Press, New York

[20] Kristeva, Julia; Homo europaeus: ¿existe una cultura europea?; OpenMind BBVA

[21] Vera, Jarlison; Albania: El Papa destaca la colaboración entre católicos, ortodoxos y musulmanes; Acaprensa

Categorías Global Affairs: Unión Europea Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos

Members of the Blue Helmets in their deployment in Mali [MINUSMA]

▲ Members of the Blue Helmets in their deployment in Mali [MINUSMA]

ESSAY / Ignacio Yárnoz

INTRODUCTION

It has been 72 years since the first United Nations peacekeeping operation was deployed in Israel/Palestine to supervise the ceasefire agreement between Israel and his Arab neighbours. Since then, more than 70 peacekeeping operations have been deployed by the UN all over the world, though with special attention to the Middle East and Africa. Over these more than 70 years, hundreds of thousands of military personnel from more than 120 countries have participated in UN peacekeeping operations. Nowadays, there are 13 UN peacekeeping operations deployed in the world, seven of which are located in African countries supported by a total of 83,436 thousand troops (around 80 percent of all UN peacekeepers deployed around the world) and thousands of civilians. The largest missions in terms of number of troops and ambitious objectives are those in the Democratic Republic of Congo (20,039 troops), South Sudan (19,360 troops), and Mali (15,162 troops)[1].

Peacekeepers in Africa, as in other regions, are given broad and ambitious mandates by the Security Council which include civilian protection, counterterrorism, and counterinsurgency operations or protection of humanitarian relief aid.  However, these objectives must go hand by hand with the core UN peacekeepers principles, which are consent by the belligerent parties, impartiality (not neutrality) and the only use of force in case of self-defence[2].

Although peace operations can be important for maintaining stability and safeguarding democratic transitions, multilateral institutions such as UN face challenges related to country contributions, training, a very hostile environment and relations with host governments. It is often stated that these missions have failed largely because they were deployed in a context of ongoing wars where the belligerents themselves did not want to stop fighting or preying on civilians and yet have to manage to protect many civilians and reduce some of the worst consequences of civil war.

In addition, UN peacekeepers are believed to be deployed in the most recent missions to war zones where not all the main parties have consented. There is also mounting international pressure for peacekeepers to play a more robust role in protecting civilians. Despite the principle of impartiality, UN peacekeepers have been tasked with offensive operations against designated enemy combatants. Contemporary mandates have often blurred the lines separating peacekeeping, stabilization, counterinsurgency, counterterrorism, atrocity prevention, and state-building.

Such features have often been referred to the case of the peacekeeping operation in Mali (MINUSMA) as I will try to sum up in this essay. This mission, ongoing since 2013 is on his seventh year and tensions between the parties have still not ceased due to several reasons I will further explain I this essay. Through a summarized history of the ongoing conflict, an explanation of the current military/police deployment, the engagement of third parties and an assessment on the risks and opportunities of this mission as well as an analysis of its successes and failures I will try to give a complete analysis on what MINUSMA is and its challenges.

Brief history of the conflict in Mali

During the last 8 years, Mali has been immersed in a profound crisis of Governance, socio-economic instability, terrorism and human rights violations. The crisis mentioned stems from several factors I will try to develop in this first part of the analysis. The crisis derives from long-standing structural conditions that Mali has experienced, such as ineffective Governments due to weak State institutions; fragile social cohesion between the different ethnic and religious groups; deep-rooted independent feelings among communities in the north due to marginalization by the central Government and a weak civil society among others. These conditions were far exacerbated by more recent instability, a spread corruption, nepotism and abuse of power by the Government, instability from neighbouring countries and a decreased effective capacity of the national army.

It all began in mid-January 2012 when a Tuareg movement called Mouvement National pour la Libération de l’Azawad (MNLA) and some Islamic armed groups such as Ansar Dine, Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Mouvement pour l’Unicité et le Jihad en Afrique de l’Ouest (MUJAO) initiated a series of attacks against Government forces in the north of the country[3]. Their primary goals for this rebel groups though different could be summarized into declaring the Northern regions of Timbuktu, Kidal and Gao (the three together called Azawad) independent from the Central Government of Mali in Bamako and re-establishing the Islamic Law in these regions. The Tuareg led rebellion was reinforced by the presence of well-equipped and experienced combatants returning from Libya´s revolution of 2011 in the wake of the fall of Gadhafi’s regime[4].

By March 2012, the Malian Institutions had been overwhelmingly defeated by the rebel groups and the MNLA seemed to almost have de facto taken control of the North of Mali. As a consequence of the ineffectiveness to handle the crisis, on 22 March a series of disaffected soldiers from the units defeated by the armed groups in the north resulted in a military coup d’état led by mid-rank Capt Aamadou Sanogo. Having overthrown President Amadou Toumane Toure, the military junta took power, suspended the Constitution and dissolved the Government institutions[5]. The coup accelerated the collapse of the State in the north, allowing MNLA to easily overrun Government forces in the regions of Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu and proclaim an independent State of Azawad on 6 April. The Military junta promised that the Malian army would defeat the rebels, but the ill-equipped and divided army was no match for the firepower of the rebels.

Immediately after the coup, the International Community condemned this act and lifted sanctions against Mali if the situation wasn't restored. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) appointed the President of Burkina Faso, Blaise Compaoré, as the mediator on the crisis and compromised the ECOWAS would help Malian Government to restore order in the Northern region if democracy was brought back[6]. On 6 April, the military junta and ECOWAS signed a framework agreement that led to the resignation of Capt Aamadou Sanogo and the appointment of the Speaker of the National Assembly, Dioncounda Traoré, as interim President of Mali on 12 April. On 17 April, Cheick Modibo Diarra was appointed interim Prime Minister and three days later, he announced the formation of a Government of national unity.

However, something happened during the rest of the year 2012 after the Malian government forces had been defeated. Those who were allies one day, became enemies of each other and former co-belligerents Ansar Dine, MOJWA, and the MNLA soon found themselves in a conflict.

Clashes began to escalate especially between the MNLA and the Islamists after a failure to reach a power-sharing treaty between the parties. As a consequence, the MNLA forces soon started to be driven out from the cities of Kidal, Timbuktu and Gao. The MNLA forces lacked as many resources as the Islamist militias and had experienced a loss of recruits who preferred the join the better paid Islamist militias. However, the MNLA stated that it continued to maintain forces and control some rural areas in the region. As of October 2012, the MNLA retained control of the city of Ménaka, with hundreds of people taking refuge in the city from the rule of the Islamists, and the city of Tinzawatene near the Algerian border. Whereas the MLNA only sought the Independence of Azawad, the Islamist militias goal was to impose the sharia law in their controlled cities, which drove opposition from the population.

Foreign intervention

Following the events of 2012, the Malian interim authorities requested United Nations assistance to build the capacities of the Malian transitional authorities regarding several key areas to the stabilization of Mali. Those areas were the reestablishment of democratic elections, political negotiations with the opposing northern militias, a security sector reform, increased governance on the entire country and humanitarian assistance.

The call for assistance came in the form of a UN deployment in mid-January 2013 authorized by Security Council resolution 2085 of 20 December 2012. This resolution gave the UN a mandate with two clear objectives: provide support to (i) the on-going political process and (ii) the security process, including support to the planning, deployment and operations of the African-led International Support Mission in Mali (AFISMA)[7].

The newly designated mission was planned to be an African led mission (Africa Union and ECOWAS) and funded through the UN trust fund and the European Union Africa Peace Facility. The mission was mandated several objectives: (i) contribute to the rebuilding of the capacity of the Malian Defence and Security Forces; (ii) support the Malian authorities in recovering the areas in the north; (iii) support the Malian authorities in maintaining security and consolidate State authority; (iv) provide protection to civilians and (iv) support the Malian authorities to create a secure environment for the civilian-led delivery of humanitarian assistance and the voluntary return of internally displaced persons and refugees.

However, the security situation in Mali further deteriorated in early January 2013, when the three main Islamist militias Ansar Dine, the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa and Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb, advanced southwards. After clashing with the Government forces north of the town of Konna, some 680 kilometres from Bamako, the Malian Army was forced to withdraw. This advance by the Islamist militias raised the alarms in the International arena as they were successfully taking control of key areas and strategic spots in the country and could soon advance to the capital if nothing was done.  

The capture of Konna by extremist groups made the Malian transitional authorities to consider requesting once again the assistance of foreign countries, in especial to its ancient colonizer France, who accepted launching a military operation to support the Malian Army. It is also true that France was already keen on intervening as soon as possible due the importance of Sévaré military airport, located 60 km south of Konna, for further operations in the Sahel area.

Operation Serval, as coined by France, was initiated on 11 January with a deployment of a total of 3,000 troops[8] and air support from Mirage 2000 and Rafale squadrons.    In addition, the deployment of AFISMA to support the French deployment was fostered. As a result, the French and African military operations alongside the Malian army successfully improved the security situation in northern areas of Mali. By the end of January, State control had been restored in most major northern towns, such as Diabaly, Douentza, Gao, Konna and Timbuktu. Most terrorist and associated forces withdrew northwards into the Adrar des Ifoghas mountains and much of their leaders such as Abdelhamid Abou Zeid were reported eliminated.

Despite taking control back to the government authorities and restoring the territorial integrity of the country, serious security challenges remained. Although the main cities had been taken back, terrorist attacks remained frequent, weapons proliferated in the rural and urban areas, drug smuggling was increasing and other criminal activities were also maintained active, which undermine governance and development in Mali. Therefore, the fight just transitioned from a territorial and conventional war to a guerrilla style warfare much more difficult to neutralise.

United Nations deployment

Following the gradual withdrawal of the French troops from Mali (Operation Serval evolved to Operation Barkhane in the Sahel region), AFISMA took responsibility to secure the stabilization and the implementation of a transitional roadmap which demanded more resources and engagement from more countries. As a consequence, AFISMA mission officially transitioned to be MINUSMA (United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali) by Security Council Resolution 2100 of April 25, 2013[9].

Seven years after, MINUSMA mission accounts with a deployment of 11,953 military personnel, 1,741 police personnel and 1,180 civilians (661 national - 585 international, including 155 United Nations Volunteers)[10] deployed in 4 different sectors: Sector North (Kidal, Tessalit, Aguelhoc) Sector South (Bamako) Sector East (Gao, Menaka, Ansongo) Sector West (Tombouctou, Ber, Diabaly, Douentza, Goundam, Mopti-Sevare). The $1 Billion budget mission (financed by UN regular budget on Peacekeeping operations) accounts with personnel from more than 50 different countries being Chad, Bangladesh or Burkina Faso the biggest contributors in terms of number of troops (Figure 1).

The command and control of the ground forces is headed by both commanders Lieutenant General Dennis Gyllensporre (military deployment) and MINUSMA Police Commissioner Issoufou Yacouba (police deployment). Regarding the political leadership of the mission, the Special Representative of the Secretary-general (SRSG) and Head of MINUSMA is Mr. Mahamat Saleh Annadif, an experienced diplomat on peace processes in Africa and former minister of Foreign Affairs of Chad.

Other international actors engaged

MINUSMA however is not the only international actor engaged in the security and political process of Mali. Institutions as the European Union are also in the ground helping specifically on the training of the Malian Army and helping develop their military capabilities.

The European Union Training Mission in Mali[11] (EUTM Mali) is composed of almost 600 soldiers from 25 European countries including 21 EU members and 4 non-member states (Albania, Georgia, Montenegro and Serbia). Since the beginning of the mission initially designed to end 15 months after the start in 2013 (First Mandate), there have been several extensions of the periods to end the mission by Council Decision (Second Mandate 2014-2016, Third Mandate 2016-2018) until today where we are on the Fourth Mandate (Extended until 2020 by Council Decision 2018/716/CFSP in May 2018). The strategic objectives of the 4th Mandate are:

  • 1st to contribute to the improvement of the capabilities of the Malian Armed Forces under the control of the political authorities.

  • 2nd to support G5 Sahel Joint Force, through the consolidation and improvement of the operational capabilities of its Joint Force, strengthening regional cooperation to address common security threats, especially terrorism and illegal trafficking, especially of human beings.

Regarding this last actor mentioned, the G5 Sahel Joint force (Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad) is an intergovernmental cooperation framework created on 16 February 2014 and seeks to fight insecurity and support development in the Sahel Region with the train and support of the European Union and external donors.

Its first operation, launched on July 2017, consisted in a Cross-Border Joint Force settled in Bamako to fight terrorism, cross-border organized crime and human trafficking in the G5 Sahel zone in the Sahel region. The United Nations Security Council welcomed the creation of this Joint Force in Resolution 2359 of 21 June 2017, which was sponsored by France[12]. At full operational capability, the Joint Force will have 5,000 soldiers (seven battalions spread across three zones: West, Centre and East). It is active in a 50 km strip on either side of the countries’ shared borders. Later on, a counter-terrorism brigade is to be deployed to northern Mali.

Finally, as I explained before, France gradually withdrew from Mali and transformed Operation Serval to Operation Barkhane[13], a force, with approximately 4,500 soldiers, spread out between Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Chad to counter the terrorist threat on these territories. With a budget of nearly €600m per year, it is France’s largest overseas operation and engages activities such as combat patrols, intelligence gathering and filling the Governance gap of the absent Government institutions.

Troop and Police contributors to MINUSMA [Source: UN] 

Retrieved from MINUSMA Fact Sheet[25]

 

Assessment on the situation of MINUSMA

Since its establishment, MINUSMA has achieved some of its objectives in its early stages. From 2013 to 2016, the situation in Northern Mali improved, the numbers of civilians killed in the conflict decreased and large numbers of displaced persons could return home. In addition, MINUSMA supported the celebration of new elections in 2013 and assisted the peace process mainly between the Tuareg rebels and the Government. The peace process culminated in the 15 May 2015 with the Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation in Mali, commonly referred as the Algiers Agreement[14][15].

The Algiers Agreement was an accord concluded between the Malian Government and two coalitions of armed groups that were fighting the government and against each other, being (i) the Coordination of Azawad Movements (CMA) and (ii) the Platform of armed groups (the Platform). Although imperfect, the peace agreement gave the basis to a continued dialogue and steps were made by the Government regarding the devolution of competences to regional institutions, laws of reconciliation and reintegration of combatants and resources devoted to infrastructure projects in the northern regions[16].

However, since 2016 the situation has deteriorated in several aspects. Violence has increased as jihadist groups have been attacking MINUSMA forces, the Forces Armées Maliennes (FAMA), and the Algiers Agreement signatories (CMA and the platform). As a consequence, MINUSMA has sustained an extraordinary number of fatalities compared to other recent UN peace operations.

Since the beginning of the Mission in 2013, 206 MINUSMA peacekeepers have died during service in Mali[17]. In the last report of Secretary General, it is noted that during the months of October, November and December 2019, there have been 68 attacks against MINUSMA troops in the regions of Mopti (46), Kidal (9), Ménaka (5), Timbuktu (4) and Gao (4) resulting in the deaths of two peacekeepers and eight contractors and in injury to five peacekeepers, one civilian and two contractors[18].

During this same period, the Malian Armed Forces have also experienced a loss of 193 soldiers and 126 injured. The deadliest attacks occurred in Boulikessi and Mondoro (Mopti Region) on 30 September; in Indelimane (Ménaka Region) on 1 November; and in Tabankort (Ménaka Region) on 18 November. MINUSMA provided support for medical evacuations for the national defence and security forces, as well as fuel and equipment to reinforce some camps.

In addition, during this last 3 months, there have been 269 incidents, in which 200 civilians were killed, 96 civilians were injured and 90 civilians were abducted. More than 85 per cent of deadly attacks against civilians took place in Mopti Region. Between 14 and 16 November, a series of attacks against Fulani villages in Ouankoro commune resulted in the killing of at least 37 persons.

As we can see from the data, Mopti region has further deteriorated regarding civilian protection and increased terrorist activity. What is more surprising is that this region in not located in the north but rather in the centre of the country. Mopti and Ségou regions in central Mali are where violence is increasingly spreading. Two closely intertwined drivers of violence can be distinguished: interethnic violence and jihadist violence against the state and its supporters.

The attacks directed primarily towards the Malian security forces and MINUSMA by jihadists have been committed by the jihadist group Katiba Macina, which is part of the GSIM (Le Groupe de Soutien à l'Islam et aux Musulmans), a merger organisation resulting from the fusion of Ansar Dine, forces from Al-Qaïda au Maghreb Islamique (AQMI), Katiba Macina and Katiba Al-Mourabitoune. This organisation formed in 2017 has triggered the retreat of an already relatively absent state in the central areas. The Katiba exerts violence against representatives of the state (administrators, teachers, village chiefs, etc.) in the Mopti region, provoking that only 30 to 40 per cent of the territorial administration personnel remains present. Additionally, only 1,300 security forces are stationed across the vast region (spanning 79,000 km²). 

Between the Jihadist activities and the retaliation activities by government forces, there has been a collateral consequence as self-defence militias have proliferated. However, these militias have not only exerted self-defence but also criminal activities and competition over scarce local re­sources. To this problem we have to add the ethnic component where violence exerted by militias is associated with ethnic differences (mainly the Dogon and Fulani). Jihadists have instrumentalised this rivalry to gain sympathizers and recruits and turned the radicalisation problem and the interethnic rivalry a vicious trap. The ethnicisation of the conflict reinforces the stigmatisation of the Fulani as “terrorists”. Meanwhile, the state has tolerated and even cooperated with the Dogon militia to cope with the terrorist threat. However, this groups are supposedly responsible for human rights violations, which again fosters radicalisation among the Fulani population feeling they are left alone in this conflict. As a matter of fact, the Dogon Militia is alleged to be responsible of the 23 March assassination of 160 Fulani in the village of Ogossagou (Mopti Region)[19].

Northern Mali has not remained calmed meanwhile, the Ménaka region has also experienced a violence raise. Recent counterterrorism efforts led by ethnically based militias resulted in a counterproductive effects leading to human rights violations and atrocities between Tuareg Daoussahaq and Fulani communities.  Due to again the absence Malian security forces or MINUSMA blue helmets, civilians have had no choice but to rely on their own self-protection or on armed groups present in the area, escalating the vicious problem of violence as in the Mopti region. 

Strategic dilemmas of MINUSMA

Given this situation, several dilemmas arise in the current situation in which the mission is. The original Mandate of MINUSMA for 5 years has already expired and now the mission is in a phase of renewal year by year, which makes it a suitable time to rethink the overall path where this mission should continue.

The fist dilemma arises given the split of the violent spots between the north and the centre of the country. MINUSMA was originally set up to stabilize the conflict in the north, but MINUSMA’s 2019 Resolution 2480[20] has derived some attention and resources to the central regions and particularly on Protection of Civilians while maintaining its presence in the north too. However, the only problem is that this division on two has not come hand in hand with an increase in resources devoted to the mission, which means that attention paid to the central regions may be in spite of gains made in the north, making the MINUSMA mandate even more unrealistic.

This dilemma raises the problem of financing of the mission. As the years passes, financers of the mission (those that contribute to the General Budget on Peace Keeping Operations of UN) such as the US are getting impatient of not seeing results to a mission where $1 Billion is devoted out of the around $8 Billion of the General Budget. The problem is that for MINUSMA to accomplish its mission in Northern Mali, it has to make an enormous military and logistical effort. The ongoing violent situation calls for security precautions that tie up scarce resources which are no longer available for carrying out the mandate. To illustrate the problem, we can look at the expenditures of the mission and discover that around 80 per cent of its military resources are devoted to securing its own infrastructure and the convoys on which the mission depends to supply its bases[21].

A final dilemma is related to the development of the terrorist threat. As we have analysed in this article, today´s conflict in Mali is about terrorism and therefore requires counterterrorist strategies. However, there are people that state that MINUSMA should focus on the politics part of the conflict stressing its efforts on the peace agreement. Current counterterrorism efforts conducted by the Malian Army are highly problematic as they have fuelled local opposition due to its poor human rights commitment. It has been reported the use of ethnic proxy militias (Such as the Dogon militias in Mopti region) who are responsible for committing atrocities against the civilian population. This makes the Central Government to be an awkward and not very trustworthy partner for MINUSMA. At the same time, returning to political tasks alone may further destabilize the country and possibly the whole Sahel-West African region.

Conclusion

There is no doubt MINUSMA operates hostile environment where around half of all blue helmets killed world­wide through malign acts since 2013 have lost their lives. However, MINUSMA has been heavily criticised by public opinion in Mali and accused of passivity regarding protection of civilians whereas critics say, blue helmets have placed their own security above the rest. The has contributed to this public perception by using the mission’s problems as a scapegoat for its own failures. However, the mis­sion (with its successes and failures) brings more advantages than inconveniences to the overall process of stabilization of Mali[22].

As many diplomats in Bamako and other public officials stress, the mission and its chief, Maha­mat Saleh Annadif, play an important role as mediators both in Bamako politics and with respect to the peace agreement. We cannot discredit the mission of its contribution to Mali´s stabilisation. As a matter of fact, it is legitimate to claim that the situation would be much worse with­out MINUSMA. Yet, the mission has not stopped the spread of violence but rather slowed down the deterioration process of the situation.

While much presence is still needed in northern Mali, we should not forget that the core of the problem to Mali´s instability is partly on the political arena and therefore needs mediation. Therefore, importance of continuing political and military support to the peace process should not be underestimated.

At the same time, we have seen the situation over protection of civilians has worsened in the central regions, which requires additional resources. Enhancing MINUSMA’s outreach and representation might prevent the central regions from collapsing, though solutions need to be found to ensure stability in the long term through mediation too. Further expanding the mission in the central regions without affecting the deployment in the north and, therefore, not risking the stability of those regions, would require that MINUSMA have additional resources. This would clearly be the best option for Mali.

Resources could for instance be devoted to improve the lack of mobility in the form of helicopters and armoured carriers to make it possible for the mission to expand its scope beyond the vicinity of its bases. Staying in the bases makes MINUSMA more of a target than a security provider and only provides security to its nearby zones where the base is physically present. In addition, the most dangerous missions are carried out by African peacekeepers despite lacking adequate means whereas European countries´ peacekeepers are mostly based in MINUSMA’s headquarters in Bamako, Gao, or Timbuktu. While European peacekeepers possess more sophisticated equipment such as surveillance drones and air support, African troops do not benefit from those and have to face the most challenging geographical and security environments escorting logistical convoys[23].

Additionally, by accelerating the re-integration of former rebels to the Malian security forces, encouraging Malian police training, and demonstrating increased presence through joint patrols in most instable areas to protect civilians are key to minimize the threat of further violence. Increased state visibility as we have analysed in this essay has driven to insecurity situations. Consequently, if it can be as much of the problem, it can also be the solution to re-establish some of its legitimacy alongside with the signatories of the Peace Accord to show good faith and engagement in the peace process[24]

In the end, any contribution MINUSMA can make will depend on the willingness of Malians to strive for an effective and inclusive government on the one hand and the commitment of the International community on the other. Supporting such a long-term process cannot be done on the cheap. Therefore, countries cannot continue to request to do more with the same or even less resources.

 

NOTES

[1] United Nations Peacekeeping. (n.d.). Where we operate. [online] Available at [Accessed 21 Dec. 2019].

[2] Renwick, D. (2015). Peace Operations in Africa. [online] Council on Foreign Relations. Available at [Accessed 21 Dec. 2019].

[3] Welsh, M. Y. (2013, January 17). Making sense of Mali's armed groups. Al Jazeera. Available at [Accessed 22 Dec. 2019].

[4] Timeline on Mali. (n.d.). New York Times. Available at [Accessed 22 Dec. 2019].

[5] Oberlé, T. (2012, March 22). Mali : le président renversé par un coup d'État militaire. Le Figaró. Available at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

[6] MINUSMA. (n.d.). History. [online] Available at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

[7] Unscr.com. (2012). Security Council Resolution 2085 - UNSCR. [online] Available at  [Accessed 23 Dec. 2019].

[8] BBC News. (2013). France confirms Mali intervention. [online] Available at  [Accessed 24 Dec. 2019].

[9] Security Council Resolution 2100 - UNSCR. (2013). Available at [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019].

[10] MINUSMA. (n.d.). Personnel. [online] Available at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

[11] EUTM Mali. (n.d.). DÉPLOIEMENT - EUTM Mali. [online] Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

[12] France Diplomatie: Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs. (n.d.). G5 Sahel Joint Force and the Sahel Alliance. [online] Available at  [Accessed 27 Dec. 2019].

[13] Ecfr.eu. (2019). Operation Barkhane - Mapping armed groups in Mali and the Sahel. [online] Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

[14] Un.org. (2015). AGREEMENT FOR PEACE AND RECONCILIATION IN MALI RESULTING FROM THE ALGIERS PROCESS. [online] Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

[15] Jezequel, J. (2015). Mali's peace deal represents a welcome development, but will it work this time? | Jean-Hervé Jezequel. Available at [Accessed 8 Jan. 2020].

[16] Nyirabikali, D. (2015). Mali Peace Accord: Actors, issues and their representation | SIPRI. Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

[17] MINUSMA. MINUSMA Fact SheetAvailable at [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019].

[18] Digitallibrary.un.org. (n.d.). "UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali" OR MINUSMA - United Nations Digital Library System. [online] Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

[19] McKenzie, D. (2019). Ogossagou massacre is latest sign that violence in Mali is out of control. Available at [Accessed 4 Jan. 2019].

[20] Unscr.com. (2019). Security Council Resolution 2480 - UNSCR. [online] Available at [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

[21] United Nations Digital Library System. (2019). Budget for the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali for the period from 1 July 2019 to 30 June 2020. [online] Available at  [Accessed 4 Jan. 2020].

[22] Van der Lijn, J. (2019). The UN Peace Operation in Mali: A Troubled Yet Needed Mission - Mali. [online] ReliefWeb. Available at [Accessed 30 Dec. 2019].

[23] Lyammouri, R. (2018). After Five Years, Challenges Facing MINUSMA Persist. Available at [Accessed 6 Jan. 2020].

[24] Tull, D. (2019). UN Peacekeeping in Mali. [online] Swp-berlin.org. Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

[25] MINUSMA. MINUSMA Fact Sheet. Available at [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019].

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

United Nations Peacekeeping. (n.d.). Where we operate. [online] Available at [Accessed 21 Dec. 2019].

Renwick, D. (2015). Peace Operations in Africa. [online] Council on Foreign Relations. Available at [Accessed 21 Dec. 2019].

Timeline on Mali. (n.d.). New York TimesAvailable at [Accessed 22 Dec. 2019].

Welsh, M. Y. (2013, January 17). Making sense of Mali's armed groups. Al JazeeraAvailable at [Accessed 22 Dec. 2019].

MINUSMA. (n.d.). History. [online] Available at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

Oberlé, T. (2012, March 22). Mali : le président renversé par un coup d'État militaire. Le FigaróAvailable at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

Unscr.com. (2012). Security Council Resolution 2085 - UNSCR. [online] Available at [Accessed 23 Dec. 2019].

BBC News. (2013). France confirms Mali intervention. [online] Available at [Accessed 24 Dec. 2019].

MINUSMA. (n.d.). Personnel. [online] Available at [Accessed 26 Dec. 2019].

EUTM Mali. (n.d.). DÉPLOIEMENT - EUTM Mali. [online] Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

France Diplomatie: Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs. (n.d.). G5 Sahel Joint Force and the Sahel Alliance. [online] Available at [Accessed 27 Dec. 2019].

Ecfr.eu. (2019). Operation Barkhane - Mapping armed groups in Mali and the Sahel. [online] Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

Un.org. (2015). AGREEMENT FOR PEACE AND RECONCILIATION IN MALI RESULTING FROM THE ALGIERS PROCESS. [online] Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

Digitallibrary.un.org. (n.d.). "UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali" OR MINUSMA - United Nations Digital Library System. [online] Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

United Nations Digital Library System. (2019). Budget for the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali for the period from 1 July 2019 to 30 June 2020. [online] Available at  [Accessed 4 Jan. 2020].

Van der Lijn, J. (2019). The UN Peace Operation in Mali: A Troubled Yet Needed Mission - Mali. [online] ReliefWeb. Available at [Accessed 30 Dec. 2019].

Tull, D. (2019). UN Peacekeeping in Mali. [online] Swp-berlin.org. Available at [Accessed 25 Dec. 2019].

McKenzie, D. (2019). Ogossagou massacre is latest sign that violence in Mali is out of control. Available at [Accessed 4 Jan. 2019].

Unscr.com. (2019). Security Council Resolution 2480 - UNSCR. [online] Available at [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

Security Council Resolution 2100 - UNSCR. (2013). Available at [Accessed 2 Jan. 2019].

Nyirabikali, D. (2015). Mali Peace Accord: Actors, issues and their representation | SIPRI. Available at [Accessed 3 Jan. 2020].

Lyammouri, R. (2018). After Five Years, Challenges Facing MINUSMA Persist. Available at [Accessed 6 Jan. 2020].

Jezequel, J. (2015). Mali's peace deal represents a welcome development, but will it work this time? | Jean-Hervé Jezequel. Available at [Accessed 8 Jan. 2020].

Categorías Global Affairs: África Seguridad y defensa Ensayos

A picture of Vladimir Putin on Sputnik's website

▲ A picture of Vladimir Putin on Sputnik's website

ESSAYPablo Arbuniés

A new form of power

Russia’s growing influence in African countries and public opinion has often been overlooked by western democracies, giving the Kremlin a lot of valuable time to extend its influence on the continent.

Until very recently, western democracies have looked at influence efforts from authoritarian countries as nothing more than an exercise of soft power. Joseph S. Nye defined soft power as a nation’s power of attraction, in contrast to the hard power of coercion inherent in military or economic strength (Nye 1990). However, this influence does not fit the common definition of soft power as ‘winning hearts and minds’. In the last years China and Russia have developed and perfected extremely sophisticated strategies of manipulation aimed towards the civil population of target countries, and in the case of Russia the role of Russia Today should be taken as an example.

These strategies go beyond soft power and have already proved their effectiveness. They are what the academia has recently labelled as sharp power (Walker 2019). Sharp power aims to hijack public opinion through disinformation or distraction, being an international projection of how authoritarian countries manipulate their own population (Singh 2018).

Sharp power strategies are being severely underestimated by western policy makers and advisors, who tend to focus on more classical conceptions of the exercise of power. As an example, the “Framework document” issued by the Spanish Institute for Strategic Studies on Russia-Africa relations (Mora Tebas 2019). The document completely ignores sharp power, labelling Russian interest in communication markets as no more than regular soft power without taking into consideration de disinformative and manipulative nature of these actions.

A growing interest in Africa 

Over the past 20 years, many international actors have shifted their interest towards the African continent, each in a different way.

China has made Africa a mayor geopolitical target in recent years, focusing on economic investments for infrastructure development. Such investments can be noticed in the Ethiopian dam projects such as the Gibe III, or in the Entebbe-Kampala Expressway in Uganda.

This could be considered as debt-trap diplomacy, as China uses infrastructure investments and development loans to gain leverage over African countries. However, there is also a key geopolitical interest, especially in those countries with access to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, due to the One Belt One Road Initiative. This project requires a net of seaports, where Kenya, and specifically the port of Lamu, could play a key role becoming a hub for trade in East Africa (Hurley, Morris and Portelance 2019).

Also, Chinese investments are attractive for African countries because they do not come with prerequisites of democratization or transparent administration, unlike those from western countries.

Yet, even though both China and Russia use sharp power as part of their foreign policy strategies, China does barely use it in Africa, since its interests in the continent are more economic than political. This is based on the view that China is more keen to exploit Africa’s natural resources (Mlambo, Kushamba y Simawu 2016) than anything else.

On the other hand, Russia has both economic and military interests in the region. This is exemplified by the case of Sudan, where in addition to the economic interest in natural resources, there is also a military interest in accessing the Red Sea. In order to achieve these goals, the first step is to grant stability in the country, and it can be achieved through ensuring that public opinion supports the government and accepts Russian presence.

The idea of a Russian world—Russkiy Mir—has grown under Putin and is key to understanding the country’s soft and sharp power strategies. It consists on the expansion of power and culture using any means possible in order to regain the lost superpower status.

However, this approach must not be seen only as a nostalgic push to regain status, but also from a purely pragmatic point of view, since economic and practical factors have “pushed aside ideology” in the competition against the West (Warsaw Institute 2019).

The recent Russia-Africa Summit (23-24 October 2019), that took place in Sochi, Russia, proves how Russia has pivoted towards Africa in recent years, offering infrastructure, energy and other investments as well as arms deals and different advisors. The outcome of this pivoting is being quite beneficial for Moscow in strategic terms.

The Kremlin’s interest in Africa was not remarkable until the post Crimea invasion. The economic sanctions imposed after the occupation of Crimea forced Russia to look further abroad for allies and business opportunities. For instance, as part of this policy there a more robust involvement of Russia in Syria.

The Russian strategy for the African continent involves benefiting favourable politicians through political and military advisors and offering control on media influence (Warsaw Institute 2019). In exchange, Russia looks for military and energy supply contracts, mining concessions and infrastructure building deals. Moreover, on a bigger picture, Russia—as well as China—aims to reduce the influence of the US and former colonial powers France and the UK.

Leaked documents published by The Guardian (Harding and Buerke 2019), show this effort to gain influence on the continent, as well as the strategies followed and the degree of cooperation with the different powers—from governments to opposition groups or social movements.

However, the growth of Russia’s influence in Africa cannot be understood without the figure of Yevgeny Prigozhin, an extremely powerful oligarch which, according to US special counsel Robert Mueller, was critical to the social media campaign for the election of Donald Trump in 2016. He is also linked to the foundation of the Wagner group, a private military contractor present among other conflicts in the Syrian war.

Prigozhin, through a network of enterprises known as ‘The Company’ has been for long the head of Putin’s plans for the African continent, being responsible of the growing number of Russian military experts involved with different governments along the continent, and now suspected to lead the push to infiltrate in the communication markets.

Between 100 and 200 spin doctors have already been sent to the continent, reaching at least 10 different countries (Warsaw Institute 2019). Their focus is on political marketing and specially on social media, with the hope that it can be as influential as in the Arab Springs.

Main targets

Influence in the media is one of the key aspects of Russia’s influence in Africa, and the main targets in this aspect are the Central African Republic, Madagascar, South Africa and Sudan. Each of these countries has a potential for Russian interests, and is targeted on different levels of cooperation, from weapons deals to spin doctors (Warsaw Institute 2019), but all of them are targets for sharp power strategies.

However, it is hard for a foreign government to directly enter the communication markets of another country without making people suspicious of its activities, and that is where The Company plays its role. Through it, pro-Russian editorial lines are fed to the population of the target states by acquiring already existing media platforms—such as newspapers or television and radio stations—or creating new ones directly under the supervision of officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, this ensures that the dominant frames fit Russia’s interests and that of its allies.

Also, the presence of Russian international media is key to its sharp power. Russia Today and Sputnik have expanded their reach by associating with local entities in Eritrea, Ivory Coast, etc. Russian radio services have been expanded to Africa as well as a key factor in both soft and sharp power.

Finally, social media are a great way of distributing disinformation, given its global reach and the insufficient amount of fact-checkers devoted to this area. There, not only Russian media can participate but also bots and individual accounts are at the service of the Kremlin’s interests.

Madagascar

Although Madagascar is viewed by the Kremlin as a high cooperation partner, it doesn’t seem to have much to offer in geopolitical terms other tan mining concessions for Russian companies. Therefore, Russian presence in Madagascar was widely unexpected.

During the May 2019 election, Russia backed six different candidates, but none of them won. In the final stages of the campaign, the Kremlin changed its strategy and backed the expected and eventual winner, Andry Rajoelina (Allison 2019). This could be considered a fiasco and ignored because of the disastrous result, but there is a key aspect that shows how Russia is trying to shape public opinion across the continent.

Although political advisors and spin doctors were only one part of the plan, Russia managed to produce and distribute the biggest mass-selling newspaper along the country with more than two million copies every month (Harding and Buerke 2019). Though it did not seem to have any major impact on the short term, it could be an important asset for shaping public opinion on the long run.

Central African Republic

The Central African Republic (CAR) is of major geopolitical relevance in the whole of the African continent. Due to its location as well as its cultural and ethnic features, it is viewed by the Kremlin as the gate to the whole continent. It is the zone of transition between the Muslim north of the continent and the Christian south (Harding and Buerke 2019).

Given the complicated situation and the context of the ongoing civil war, it can be considered as an easy target for foreign powers. This is mainly due to the power structures being weakened by the war. Russia is part of the UN peacekeeping mission in the CAR, in a combination of soft and hard power. Also, a Russian training centre is operative in the country, and both Moscow and Bangui are open to the inauguration of a Russian military base.

Russia played a key role in the peace deal of February 2019, and since 2017 Valery Zakharov, a former Russian intelligence official, has been an adviser to CAR’s president. All of this, if the peacekeeping operations are successful, would lead to an immense political debt in favour of the Kremlin.

The mineral richness of the CAR is another asset to consider due to the reserves of gold and high-quality diamonds. Also, there is a big business opportunity in rebuilding a broken country, and Russian oligarchs and businessmen would certainly be interested in any public contracts regarding this matter. 

In the CAR, Russia exerts sharp power not only through social media, but also through two print publications and a radio station, which still have limited influence (Harding and Buerke 2019). Through such means, Russia is consistently feeding its frames narratives to a disoriented population, which given the unstable context, would be an easy target to manipulate.  Moreover, the possibility to create a favourable dominant post conflict narrative would render public opinion more likely to accept Russian presence in the future.

Sudan

Sudan is of major geostrategic importance for Russia among many other actors. For long time both countries have had economic, political and military relations, leading to Sudan being considered by the Kremlin as a level 5 co-operator, the highest possible (Harding and Buerke 2019). This relation is enforced by Sudan’s constant claims of aggressive acts by the United States, for which it demands Russia’s military assistance.

Also, Sudan is rich in uranium, bearing the third biggest reserves in the world. Uranium is a key raw material to build a major power nowadays, and Russia is always keen on new sources of uranium to bolster its nuclear industry.

Moreover, Sudan is key in regional and global geopolitics because it offers Russia a possibility to have a military base with access to the Red Sea. Given the amount of trade routes that go through its waters, the Kremlin would be very keen to have said access. Many other powers have shown interest in this area, such as the gulf States, or China with its base in Djibouti being operative since 2017.  

For all these reasons. Sudan is a very special element in Russia’s plans, and thus its level of commitment is greater than in other countries. The election to take place on April 2020 could be considered as one of the most important challenges for democracy in the short term. Russia is closely monitoring the situation in order to draw an efficient plan of action.

Before the end of Omar al-Bashir’s presidency, Russia and Sudan enjoyed good relationship. Russian specialists had prepared reforms in economic and political matters in order to ensure the continuity in power of Bashir, and his fall was a blow to these plans.

However, Russia will devote many resources to amend the situation in the Sudan parliamentary and presidential election, that will take place in April 2020. In a ploy to maintain power, Al Bashir mirrored the measures employed against opposition protesters in Russia. These tactics consist of using disinformation and manipulated videos in order to portray any opposition movement as anti-Islamic, pro-Israeli or pro-LGBT. Given the fact the core of Sudan’s public opinion is mostly conservative and religious, Russia’s plan consists on manipulating it towards its desired candidate or candidates (Harding and Buerke 2019).

In order to ensure that the Russian framing was dominant, social media pages like Radio Africa’s Facebook page or Sudan Daily were presented like news pages, while being in fact part of a  Russian-backed influence network in central and northern Africa (Alba and Frenkel 2019). The information shown has been supportive of whatever government is in power, and critical of the protesters (Stanford Internet Observatory 2019), which shows that Russia’s prioritary interest is a stable government and weak protesters.

Another key part of the strategy has been pressuring the government to increase the cost of newsprint to limit the possibilities of countering the disinformation distributed with the help pf Russian advisors (Harding and Buerke 2019). The de-democratization of information can prove to be very effective, even more taking into account the fact that social media is not as powerful in Sudan as it is in western countries, so owning the most popular means of communication allows to create a dominant frame and impose it to the population without them even noticing.

South Africa

The economic context of South Africa, with a large economy, a rising middle class and a good market overall, is quite interesting for business and could be one of the reasons why Russia has such an interest in the country. Also, South Africa can be seen as an economic gateway to the southern part of the African continent.

South Africa is a key country for the global interest of Russia. Not only for its mineral richness and business opportunities, but mainly for its presence in BRICS. Russia attempts to use BRICS as a global counterbalance in a US dominated international landscape.

Russia is interested in selling nuclear technology to its allies, and South Africa is no exception. The presence of South Africa in BRICS is key to understand why such a deal would be so interesting for Russia. BRICS may not offer the possibility to create a perfect counter-balance for western powers, mainly due to the unsurpassable discrepancies among the involved countries, but its ability to cooperate comprehensively on limited shared projects and objectives can be of critical relevance (Salzman 2019).

The presence in the country of Afrique Panorama and AFRIC (Association for Free Research and International Cooperation), shows how Russia attempts to exert its influence. Both pages are linked to Prigozhin, but they are disguised as independent. AFRIC was involved in the elections of Zimbabwe, South Africa, Madagascar and DRC (Grossman, Bush y Diresta 2019).

In fact, if public opinion could be shaped in order to make Russia’s interests like nuclear cooperation acceptable by South Africa, the main obstacle would be surpassed, and a comprehensive plan of cooperation would be in play sooner than later.

The elections of May 2019 were one of the main priorities for Russia. The election saw Cyril Ramaphosa elected, as successor of Jacob Zouma. Ramaphosa is known to have openly congratulated Nicolás Maduro for his second inauguration and holds good relations with Vietnam. This are indicators of a willingness to have good relations even with anti-western powers, which is of big interest for the Kremlin. Furthermore, he has a vast business experience, being the architect of the most powerful trade union in the country among other achievements and initiatives, which would see him open to strike deals with Russian oligarchs in the mineral or energetic fields.

All this considered, South Africa is of extreme relevance for Russia, and thus its efforts to be able to shape public opinion. This could be used to favour the implementation of nuclear facilities as well as electing favourable politicians, creating a political debt to be exploited someday. For now, any activity has been limited to tracking and getting to understand public opinion. However, the creation of new media under some form of control by the Kremlin is one of the priorities for the coming years (Harding and Buerke 2019), and could prove a very valuable asset if it’s successfully achieved. Also, despite what was said in the case of Sudan, the importance of social media is not to be forgotten or underestimated, especially given the advantage of English being an official language in the country.

The bigger picture

From a more theorical point of view, that of the Flow and Contra-flow paradigm, Russia attempts to set the political agenda through mass media control, as well as impose its own frames or those that benefit its allies. Also, given the proportions of the project, we could talk about an attempt to go back to the cultural imperialism doctrines, where Russia attempts to pose its narrative as a counterflow of the western narratives. This was mainly seen during the cold war, when global powers attempted to widely spread their own narratives through controlling said information flows, arguably as a form of cultural imperialism.

This can be seen as an attempt to counterbalance the power of the US and western powers by attempting to shift African countries towards non-western actors. And African countries may be interested in this idea, since being the centre of the competition could mean better deals and business opportunities or investments being offered to them.

It would be a mistake to think that Russia’s sharp power in Africa is just a tool to help political allies get to power or maintain it. Beyond that, Russia monitors social conflicts and attempts to intensify them in order to destabilize target countries or exterior powers (Alba and Frenkel 2019). Such is the case in Comoros, where Prigozhin employees were tasked to explore the possibilities of intensifying the conflict between the local government and the French administration (Harding and Buerke 2019). Again on a broader picture of things, the attempt to develop an African self-identity through the use of sharp power looks to reduce the approval of influence of western democracies on the continent, thus creating a context ideal for bolstering dependence on the Russian administration either through supply contracts or political debt.

In conclusion, the recent growth of Russia’s soft and above all sharp power in Africa could potentially be one of the political keys in the years to follow, and it is not to be overlooked by western democracies. Global media, supranational entities and public administrations should put their efforts on providing civil society with the tools to avoid falling for Russia’s manipulative tactics and serve as guarantors of democracy. The most immediate focus should be on the US 2020 election, since the worst-case scenario is that the latest exercises of Russia’s sharp power in Africa are a practice towards a new attempt at influencing the US presidential election in 2020.

 

REFERENCES

Alba, Davey, and Sheera Frenkel. 2019. “Russia Tests New Disinformation Tactics in Africa to Expand Influence.” The New York Times, 30 October.

Allison, Simon. 2019. “Le retour contrarié de la Russie en Afrique.” Courrier international, 5 August.

Ashraf, Nadia, y Jeske van Seters. 2020. «Africa and EU-Africa partnership insights: input for estonia’s new africa strategy.» ECDPM.

Grossman, Shelby, Daniel Bush, y Renée Diresta. 2019. «Evidence of Russia-Linked Influence Operations in Africa.»

Harding, Luke, and Jason Buerke. 2019. “Leaked documents reveal Russian effort to exert influence in Africa.” The Guardian, 11 June. Accessed November 25, 2019.

Hurley, John, Scott Morris, y Gailyn Portelance. 2019. «Examining the debt implications of the Belt and Road Initiative from a policy perspective.» Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development (EnPress Publisher) 3 (1): 139.

Madowo, Larry. 2018. Should Africa be wary of chinese debt.

Mlambo, Courage, Audrey Kushamba, y More Blessing Simawu. 2016. «China-Africa Relations: What Lies Beneath?» Chinese Economy (Routledge) 49 (4): 257-276.

Mora Tebas, Juan A. 10/2019. http://www.ieee.es/. 2019. ««Rusiáfrica»: el regreso de Rusia al «gran juego» africano.» Documento Marco IEEE. Último acceso: 30 de Nov de 2019. http://www.ieee.es/.

Nye, Joseph. 1990. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. London: Basic Books.

Salzman, Rachel S. 2019. Russia, BRICS, and the disruption of global order. Georgetown University Press.

Singh, Mandip. 2018. “From Smart Power to Sharp Power: How China Promotes her National Interests .” Journal of Defence Studies.

Standish, Reid. 2019. Putin Has a Dream of Africa. Foreign Policy.

Stanford Internet Observatory. 2019. «Evidence of Russia-Linked Influence Operations in Africa.»

Walker, C. and Ludwig, J. 2019. «The Meaning of Sharp PowerForeign Affairs.

Warsaw Institute. 2019. “Russia in Africa: weapons, mercenaries, spin doctors.” Strategic report, Warsaw.

Categorías Global Affairs: África Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos

Farewell of Espérance Nyirasafari (left) as minister of Gender and Family Promotion, in Rwanda's capital in 2018 [Rwanda's Gov.]

▲ Farewell of Espérance Nyirasafari (left) as minister of Gender and Family Promotion, in Rwanda's capital in 2018 [Rwanda's Gov.]

ESSAY María Rodríguez Reyero

South Africa is ranked 17th in the World Economic Forum's 2020 Global Gender Gap Index[1] (a two place increase from 2019), while Rwanda is ranked 9th (a three place decline from the previous year). Interestingly, Spain is ranked 8th (a major gain of 11 places in one year). Since 2018, Spain has made a gain of 21 places, which is only rivaled by countries like Madagascar (22), Mexico and Georgia (25) and Ethiopia (35).

Regarding political participation and governance in the last decade, the number of African women in ministerial posts has tripled. African women already account for 22.5% of parliamentary seats, a similar percentage to that of Europe (23.5%) and higher than that of the US (18%). However, does the increase in female participation in high political positions lead to a real improvement in the lives of other women? Or is female participation only a façade?

This study’s main aim is to explore the impact that women’s participation in politics has on the circumstances of the rest of women in their countries. The study is based on secondary research and quantitative data collection and will objectively analyze the situation in Spain, Rwanda, and South Africa and draw pertinent conclusions.

Rwanda

From April to July 1994, between 800,000 and one million ethnic Tutsis were brutally killed during a 100 day killing spree perpetrated by Hutus [2]. After the genocide, Rwanda was on the edge of total collapse. Entire villages had been destroyed, and social cohesion was in tatters. Yet, this small African country has made a remarkable economic turnaround since the genocide. The country now boasts intra-regional trade and has positioned itself as an attractive destination for foreign investment, being a leading country in the African economy. Rwanda’s economy appears to be thriving, with annual GDP growth averaging 7.76% between 2000 and 2019, and “growth expected to continue at a similar pace over the next few years” according to a recent study of World Finance.[3] About 70% of the survivors of the fratricidal struggle between Hutus and Tutsis are women, and thus women play a role of utmost importance in the recovery of Rwanda.[4]

The Rwandan genocide ended with the deaths of one million people and the rape of more than 200,000 women.[5] Women were the clear losers of the conflict, yet the conflict also enabled women to become the main economic, political and social engine of Rwanda during its recovery from the war. Roles traditionally assigned to men were assigned to women, which turned women into more active members of society and empowered them to fight for their rights. The main area where this shift has been felt is in politics, where gender parity reaches its highest level thanks to Rwanda’s continued commitment to equal representation. This support has led the proportion of women in the Rwandan National Parliament to even exceed that of men in the lower house, which consists of 49 women out of a total of 89 representatives.[6]

The body responsible for coordinating female protection and empowerment is the Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion, promoter of the National Gender Policy. The minister of Gender until 2018 was Espérance Nyirasafari. Nyirasafari was responsible for several main changes in Rwandan society including the approval of laws against gender-based violence. She now serves as one of two Vice Presidents of the senate of Rwanda.

Consequently, Rwanda illustrates African female advancement. In addition to currently being the world's leading country in female representation in Parliament, (in which women hold nearly 60% of the seats), Rwanda reached the fourth highest position in the las World Economic Forum's gender gap report. The only countries that came close in this respect were Namibia and South Africa.

The political representation of women in Rwanda has led to astonishing results in other areas, notably education. Rwanda’s education system is considered one of the most advanced in Africa, with free and compulsory access to primary school and the first years of high school. About 100% of Rwandan children are incorporated into primary school and 75% of young people ages 15+ are literate. However, high school attendance is significantly low, counting with just 23% of young people, of which women represent only 30%.[7] Low high school attendance is mainly due to the predominance of rural areas in the country, where education is more difficult to access, especially for women, who are frequently committed to marriage and the duties of housework and family life from a very young age. Despite the growing data and measures established, education is in reality very hard to achieve for women, who are mostly stuck at home or committed to other labor.[8]

Regarding the legislative measures put in place to achieve gender equality and better conditions and opportunities for women, Rwanda does not score high. Despite being one of the most advanced countries in gender equality, currently, no laws exist to ensure equal pay or non-discrimination in the hiring of women, according to WEF’s 2019 report, even if some relevant legal measures have been effectively been put into practice since the ratification of the 2003 Constitution, which demonstrates the progress on gender equality in Rwanda.

The Constitution also argues that the principle of gender equality must prevail in politics and that the list of members of the Chamber of Deputies must be governed by this equitable principle. The law on gender violence passed in 2008 is proof of national commitment to women's rights, as it recognizes innovative protections such as the prohibition of spousal rape, three months of compulsory maternity leave (even some Western countries such as the United States lack this protection) or equal rights in inheritance process regardless of gender.[9]

Finally the labor law passed in 2009 establishes numerous protections for Rwandan women, such as receiving the same salary as their male colleagues or the total prohibition of any gesture of sexual content towards them.

Some of the most relevant progress made in Rwanda are the reduction of the percentage of women in extreme poverty from 40% in 2001 to 16.3% in 2014, and the possession of land by 26% of women personally and 54% in a shared way with their husbands.[10] Thanks to the work and commitment of female politicians, Rwandan women today enjoy inalienable rights which women in many other countries can only dream of.[11] This ongoing egalitarian work has paid off: Rwanda is as mentioned above the 9th country in the world with a smaller gender gap, only behind Iceland, Nicaragua, Finland, Sweden, and Norway. In the annual study of the World Economic Forum, only five countries (including Rwanda, the only African) have surpassed the 50% barrier in terms of reducing the gender gap in politics. Likewise, the gender parity in economic participation that Rwanda has achieved is of great relevance, which has made it the first country in the world to include women in the world of work and equal economic remuneration. Rwanda is a regional role model in terms of egalitarian legislation.[12]

South Africa

According to IMF and World Bank latest data, South Africa currently is the second most prosperous country of the whole continent, only surpassed by Nigeria. The structure of its economy is that of a developed country, with the preeminence of the services sector, and the country stands out for its extensive natural resources, thus being considered one of the largest emerging economies nowadays. South Africa also has a seat in the BRICS economy block (with Brazil, Russia, India, and China) and is a member of the G20.

Despite its economic position, the country is also home to great inequality, largely bequeathed in its history of racial segregation. According to the New York Times, the post-apartheid society had to face great challenges: it had to “re-engineer an economy dominated by mining and expand into modern pursuits like tourism and agriculture while overcoming a legacy of colonial exploitation, racial oppression, and global isolation — the results of decades of international sanctions."[13] However, what is the role of women in this deep transformation? Has their situation improved or are they the new discriminated ones?

South Africa continues to lead the way in women's political participation in the region with 46% of women in the House of Assembly and provincial legislatures and 50% of women in the cabinet after the May 2019 elections. All the speakers in the national and provincial legislatures are women. Women parliamentarians rose from 40% in 2014 to 46% in 2019.

Rwanda, Namibia and South Africa are ranked in the top 20 countries in reducing the gender gap. On the other hand, South Africa does have established legislation about equality in salaries, but not in non-discrimination in the hiring process according to the data collected by the World Economic Forum in January 2020.

South Africa is writing a new page in its history thanks to the entry of Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma (she was elected in 2012 president of the African Union Commission becoming the first woman to lead this organization, and currently serves as Minister of Planning, Monitoring, and Evaluation in South Africa’s Government) and other women, such as Lindiwe Nonceba Sisulu (minister of International Relations and Cooperation until 2019) into the political competition.

Subsequently, women have always been involved in political organizations, as well as in the trade union movement and other civil society organizations. Although evolving in a patriarchal straitjacket due to the social role women had assigned, they don't waited for "the authorization of men" to claim their rights. This feminine tradition of political engagement in South Africa has resulted the writing of a protective Constitution for women in a post-apartheid multiracial and supposedly non-sexist context.

However, this has not led to an effective improvement in the real situation of women in the country. According to local media data,[14] a woman dies every eight hours in South Africa because of gender violence and, according to 2016 government statistics, one in five claims to have suffered at some time in her life. Besides, in South Africa, about 40,000 violations are reported annually, according to police data, the vast majority reported by women. These figures lead South Africa's statistics agency to estimate that 1.4 out of every thousand women have been raped, which places the country with one of the highest rates of this type in the world.[15]

Spain

After a cruel civil war, followed by 36 years of dictatorship, Spanish society was looking forward to a change, and thus the democratic transition took place, transforming an oppressed country into the Spain we nowadays know. In many occasions, history tends to forget the 27 women, deputies and senators of the 1977 democratic legislature who were architects of this political change (divorce law, legalize the sale of contraceptives, participate in the drafting of the Constitution of 1978, amongst others). These women also having an active role in politics, something unusual and risky for a woman at that time (without rights as basic as owning property or opening a bank account during the dictatorship). It is clear that women played a crucial role in the transformation of Spanish society, but has it really been effective?

Spain’s new data since the establishment of a new government in January 2020 is among the top 4 European countries with the highest female proportion: behind Sweden (with 47.4%), France (47.2%) and Finland (45.8%), according to the latest data published by the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE).[16] After the last elections in November, Spain is placed in tenth place in the global ranking. Ahead, there are Rwanda (with 61.3%), Cuba (53.2%), Bolivia (53.1%), Mexico (48.2%) and others such as Grenada, Namibia, Sweden, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, according to data published by the World Bank. Of the 350 congress deputies, 196 are men and 154 are women, meaning that 56% of the members of the House of Representatives are men while 44% are women.

In Spain, also almost every child gets a primary education according to OECD but almost 35% of Spanish young people do not get a higher education. Of those who do go to university nearly 60% of all the students are women. They also get better grades and take on average less time to graduate than men but are less likely to hold a power position: according to PwC Spain last data, only a 19% of all directive positions are held by women, 11% of management advice are women and less than a 5% are women in direction or presidency of Spanish enterprises. This is since at least 2.5 million women in Spain cannot access the labor market because they have to take care of family care. Among men, the figure is reduced to 181,000. The data has been given by the International Labor Organization (ILO). The study also revealed that women in Spain perform 68% of all unpaid care work, dedicating twice as much time as men. About 25% of inactive women in Spain claim that they cannot work away from home because of their family charges. This percentage is much higher than those of other surrounding countries, such as Portugal (13%) or France (10%) and the European average. It is also much larger than that of Spanish men who do not work for the same reason (3%).

Regarding gender-based violence, even if Spain has since 2004 an existing regulation to severely punish it, in the year 2019 a total of 55 women have been killed by their partners or ex-partners, the highest death toll since 2015, with a total of 1,033 since they began to be credited in 2003, according to the balance of the Government Delegation for Gender Violence last data.

Conclusion

To sum up, even if African countries such as Rwanda and South Africa have more women representation and are doing well by-passing laws and measures, due to cultural reasons such as a more ingrained patriarchal society, community interventions, family pressure or the stigma of single mothers, gender equality is more difficult in Africa. Culture, in reality, makes it more difficult to be effective, whereas in Spain the measures implemented, even if they are apparently less numerous, are more effective when it comes to creating institutions that protect women. Women in Africa usually depend a lot on their husbands; they very often suffer in silence not to be left alone without financial support, a situation that in Spain has been tacked without problems.

It is not so much a legislative issue but a cultural one: in Spain, if a woman suffers gender violence and reports it, it is more likely that she would be offered government's help (monetary help, job opportunities...) in order to start a new life, and she most certainly will not be judged by society due to her circumstances. Whereas in South Africa for example, a UN Women rapporteur estimated that only one in nine rapes were reported to the police and that this number was even lower if the woman was raped by a partner, this mainly being due to the social stigma still present nowadays. In Rwanda, a 2011 report from the Rwandan Men's Resource Centre said 57% of women questioned had experienced violence from a partner, while 32% of women had been raped by their husbands, this crime being admitted by only 4% of men, as rape in marriage is seen as a normal situation due to cultural reasons: women still depend somehow on their husbands, and family is the center of society, so it must not be broken.

In numerous occasions, in African countries justice is taken at a different level, in order not to disturb the social and familial order; frequently, rape or gender violence is tackled amongst the parties by negotiating or by less traditional justice systems such as community systems like Gacaca court in Rwanda (a  social form of justice designed to promote communal healing, massively used after Rwandan genocide),[17] something unbelievable in Spain, where according to official data from Equality Ministry, last year more than 40.000 reports for gender violence were heard by courts.[18]

In regard to inequality and according to the latest IMF studies, closing the gender gap in employment could increase the GDP of a country by 35% on average, of which between 7 and 8 percentage points correspond to increases in productivity thanks to gender diversity. Having one more woman in senior management or on the board of directors of a company raises the return on assets between 8 and 13 basis points. Consequently, we could state that, as shown by the data (not only those provided by the IMF, but the evident improvements that have taken place throughout this decade in Spain, Burundi, Rwanda, and South Africa) the presence of women both in top management positions and above all, in politics and governance does lead to a real improvement in the rights and lifestyles of the rest of the women, and a substantial improvement of the country as a whole.

However, after their arduous and tricky climb to the top, women inherit a political system which is difficult, if not almost impossible, to change in a few years. Furthermore, the question of the application of laws, when they exist, by the judicial system is a huge challenge in all states as well as making effective all the measures for the reduction of gender inequality. This supposes such a great challenge, not only for these women but also for the whole society, as having arrived where we are.

 


[1] World Economic Forum (December 2020), The Global Gender Gap Report 2020. World Economic Forum. Accessed 14/02/2020

[2] Max Roser and Mohamed Nagdy (2020), "Genocides". Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Accessed 14/02/202

[3] Natalie Keffler (2019)., ‘Economic growth in Rwanda has arguably come at the cost of democratic freedom’, World Finance. Accessed 14/02/2020

[4] Charlotte Florance (2016), 22 Years After the Rwandan Genocide. Huffpost. Accessed 14/02/2020

[5] Violet K. Dixon (2009), A Study in Violence: Examining Rape in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. Inquires journal. Accessed 14/02/2020

[6] Inter-parliamentary Union (2019), ‘Women in national Parliaments’. IUP. Accessed 14/02/2020

[7] World Bank (2019), The World Bank in Rwanda. World Bank. Accessed 14/02/2020

[8] Natalie Keffler (2019)., ‘Economic growth in Rwanda has arguably come at the cost of democratic freedom’, World Finance. Accessed 14/02/2020

[9] Tony Blair. (2014), ‘20 years after the genocide, Rwanda is a beacon of hope.’ The Guardian. Accessed 14/02/20

[10] Antonio Cascais (2019), ‘Rwanda – real equality or gender-washing?’ DW. Accessed 14/02/2020

[11] Álex Maroño (2018), ‘Ruanda, ¿una utopía feminista?.’ El Orden Mundial. Accessed 14/02/2020

[12] Alexandra Topping (2014), ‘The genocide Conflict and arms Rwanda's women make strides towards equality 20 years after the genocide.’ The Guardian. Accessed 14/02/2020

[13] Peter S. Goodman (2017), ‘End of Apartheid in South Africa? Not in Economic Terms.’ The New York Times Sitio. Accessed 14/02/2020

[14] Gopolang Makou (2018), ‘Femicide in South Africa: 3 numbers about the murdering of women investigated.’ Africa Check. Accessed 14/02/2020

[15] British Broadcasting Corporation (2019), ‘Sexual violence in South Africa: 'I was raped, now I fear for my daughters'. BBC News. Accessed 14/02/2020

[16] European Institute for Gender Equality (2019). ‘Gender Equality Index.’ EIGE. Accessed 14/02/2020

[17] Gerd Hankel. (2019), ‘Gacaca Courts’, Oxford Public International Law. Accessed 14/02/2020

[18] Instituto de la mujer (2016), ‘Estadísticas violencia de género.’ Ministerio de Igualdad de España. Accessed 14/02/2020

Categorías Global Affairs: África Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos

People in a rural area of Cameroon [Photokadaffi]

▲ People in a rural area of Cameroon [Photokadaffi]

ESSAY EMILIJA ŽEBRAUSKAITĖ

Introduction

In seeking to better understand the grounds of Islamic fundamentalism in Africa, it is worth to looks for the common denominators that make different areas prone to the insurgence of extremism. In the continent of boundaries that were mainly drawn by the Europeans, many countries contain a multitude of cultures and religions, all of them in constant interaction and more often than not – friction with each other. However, in order to classify the region as highly susceptible to the inter-religious or inter-cultural conflict to happen, there are more important factors that must be taken into consideration. Through quantitative study and document analysis, this article, with an example of the rise of Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria and the expansion of the group to the neighbouring countries such as Cameroon, will underline the most important problems that paved the path for the emergence and spread of the Islamic fundamentalism, discussing its historical, social and ideological origins, at the same time providing possible long-time solutions on social and ideological ground.    

The brief history of Islam in Nigeria and Cameroon

The arrival of Islam to Nigeria dates back to the 11th and 12th centuries, when it spread from North Africa through trade and migration. It incorporated Husa and Fulani tribes into the common cultural ground of Islam which extended throughout North Africa, introducing them to the rich Islamic culture, art, Arabic language and teachings. In the 19th century, Fulani scholar named Usman Dan Fodio launched a jihad, establishing a Sokoto Caliphate ruled under a strict form of Shari’a law, further spreading Islamic influence in the region, introducing it for the first time to the area which today forms the Northern part of Cameroon, another country of our analysis.

The Sokoto Caliphate remained the most powerful state in Western Africa until the arrival of the European colonists. As opposed to the Southern part of Nigeria which was colonized and Christianized, the North received a lesser portion of Western education and values, as the Europeans ruled it indirectly through the local leaders. The same happened with Cameroon, which was indirectly ruled by the Germans in the North and experienced a more direct Westernization in the South. Even the indirect rule, however, brought great changes to the political and judicial processes, which became foreign to the local inhabitants. “This was viewed by Muslim northerners as an elevation of Christian jurisprudence over its Islamic judicial heritage” (Thomson, 2012) and the experience was without a doubt a humiliating and painful one – a foreign body destroying the familiar patterns of a lifestyle led for centuries, implementing a puppet government, diminishing the significance of a Sultan to that of a figurehead.

After their corresponding independence in 1960, both Nigeria and Cameroon became what American political scientist Samuel Huntington called cleft countries – composed of many ethnical groups and two major religions – Christianity in the South and Islam in the North. This situation, as described by Huntington, can be called the clash of civilizations between Islamic and Western tradition. He identifies the similarity between the two religions as one of the main reasons for their incompatibility: “Both are monotheistic religions, which, unlike the polytheistic ones, cannot easily assimilate additional deities, and which see the world in dualistic, us-and-them terms” (Huntington, 2002).

The independence also brought secularization of the two countries, thus undermining in both the political Islamism and the idea that Muslims should be ruled by the law of God, and not the law of men. However, the long-lasting Islamic tradition uniting the Northern Nigeria (and to some extent Northern Cameroon, although it was introduced to Islam much later) with the rest of North Africa and separating it from its Southern counterpart prevailed. “The Sokoto Caliphate remains a not-so-very distant and important reference point for Nigeria’s Muslims and represents the powerful role that jihad and Shari’a law played in uniting the region, rejecting corruption, and creating prosperity under Islam” (Thomson, 2012).

Fertile ground for fundamentalism

Out of the romantic sentiments of long lost glory, it is not too difficult to incite resentment for modernity. To a certain extent, a distaste for the Westernization, which was an inevitable part of modernizing a country, is justifiable. After all, European imperialism selfishly destroyed indigenous ways of life enforcing their own beliefs and political systems, ethics, and norms a practice that continued even after decolonisation. Yet, the impetus for the growth of Islamic fundamentalism in Nigeria as well as other places in Africa can be found as much in the current situation as in the past grievances. 

In Nigeria specifically, the gap was further enhanced by different European policies concerning the Northern and Southern parts of the country. Along with the more direct Westernization, the Southern part of Nigeria was also better educated, familiar to Western medicine, bureaucracy, and science. It had an easier time to adapt to forming part of a modern liberal state. According to the data published in Educeleb, by 2017 Nigeria’s literacy rate was 65.1% (Amoo, 2018). All the Southern states were above the national average and all the Northern ones were below. The same statistics also depict the fact that the difference between literacy level between genders is barely noticeable in the Southern states, while in the Northern states the gap is much wider.

Apart from the differences mentioned above, the Southern region is the place where the oil-rich Niger delta, which in 2018 contributed to 87.7% of Nigeria’s foreign exchange, is situated  (Okpi, 2018). It can be argued that the wealth is not equally distributed throughout the country and while the Christian South experiences economic growth, it often does not reach the Northern regions with Muslim majority. “Low income means poverty, and low growth means hopelessness”, wrote Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion: “Young men, who are the recruits for rebel armies, come pretty cheap in an environment of hopeless poverty. Life itself is cheap, and joining a rebel movement gives these young men a small change of riches” (Collier, 2007).

The rise of Boko Haram

In this disproportionally impoverished Northern part of the country and with the goal of Islamic purification for Northern Nigeria, a spiritual leader, Muhammad Yusuf, founded an organization which he called People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad. The locals, however, named it Boko Haram, which literally means books are forbidden and reflects the organization’s rejection of Western education and values. Boko Haram was founded in 2002 in Borno state, Maiduguri, where Yusuf established a mosque and Koranic school in which he preached Islamic teachings with a goal of establishing an Islamic state ruled by Shari’a law. “Western-style education is mixed with issues that run contrary to our beliefs in Islam” (Yusuf, 2009).

Although the organization seemed to be peaceful enough for Nigerian government to ignore it for the first seven years of its existence, from the start Boko Haram was antagonistic towards the secular government which they associated with corruption, Christian-domination and Western influence. In 2009 the confrontation between the group and Nigeria’s security forces led to and extrajudicial killing of the Muhammed Yusuf in captivity (Smith, 2009). The event became an impetus for the pre-existing animosity Boko Haram felt for the state to grow into an actual excuse for violence. Since 2009 the group was led by Abubakar Shekau who replaced Muhammad Yusuf after his death.

The attacks of the organization became more frequent and brutal, killing many civilians in Nigeria and neighboring countries, Muslims and Christians alike. Although its primary focus laid on the state of Borno, after being pushed out of its capital Maiduguri, Boko Haram became a rural-based organization, operating in the impoverished region around Lake Chad basin (Comolli, 2017). Apart from Nigeria, the countries in which Boko Haram inflicted damage include Niger, Burkina Faso, Chad and Cameroon, the latest being the subject of analysis in this essay.

Impact of Boko Haram in Nigeria and Cameroon

To illustrate the impact the terrorist group had on the socio-economic development of the region, we will look at the Mo Ibrahim Index of African Governance (Ibrahim Index of African Governance, n.d.). As an example, we will evaluate the perception of personal security and level of national security in Nigeria – a country in which the Boko Haram had originated, and Cameroon – one of the countries where it spread after Nigeria’s government launched their counter-terrorism program. The timeline for the graphs runs from the year 2000 to 2016 in order to capture the changes in national security and personal safety in Cameroon and Nigeria. This aid the study in drawing concrete conclusions over a period of time.

 

Figure 1: Impact of Boko Haram on Personal Safety and National Security in Nigeria.

Source: Mo Ibrahim Index

 

The perception of personal safety in Nigeria, according to Mo Ibrahim Index of African Governance, started decreasing since 2010. The tendency can be explained by the fact that in 2009 Nigerian government confronted the fundamentalist group, after which it became more active and violent. The perception of personal safety also dropped after 2014, the year that was marked by the infamous capturing of 276 Chibok schoolgirls out of their school dormitory. When it comes to the index portraying the level of national security, similar tendencies can be seen characterized by the drop of national security in 2009 and after 2014.

 

Figure 2: Impact of Boko Haram on Personal Safety and National Security in Cameroon

Source: Mo Ibrahim Index

 

Another example can be Cameroon, the second most affected country after Nigeria which was infiltrated by Boko Haram in 2009. During that time, however, the presence of the terrorist group in the North of Cameroon was rather unassertive. At first the group was focusing on establishing their connections, gaining Cameroonian recruits, using the country as a transit of weapons to Nigeria (Heungoup, 2016). With the beginning of the kidnapping of foreigners, however, the year 2013 is marked by the drop of national security in the country. By 2014, the Cameroonian government declared war against Boko Haram, to which the group responded with a further increase of violence and thus – further drop of national safety.

An additional peak of terrorist attacks can be noticed after the renewed wave of governmental resistance after the 2015 elections in Nigeria which strongly weakened Boko Haram’s influence, at the same time leading to increasingly asymmetric warfare. In Cameroon only, Boko Haram executed more than 50 suicide bombers attacks, which killed more than 230 people (Heungoup, 2016). In the end, it is clear that despite the efforts of Nigerian and Cameroonian governments in fighting Boko Haram by declaring the war against terrorism, it cannot be said with certainty that the response of the governments of these countries were effective in eliminating or even containing the terrorist group. On the contrary, it seems that pure military resistance only further provoked the terrorist group and led to an increase of violence.

Response of the government

The outbreak of violence at the instigation of Boko Haram elicited a similar response from Nigerian armed forces in 2009 (Solomon, 2012). The office of president Goodluck Johnson launched a military mission in Maiduguri, which united the Nigerian Police Force with the Department of State Security, the army, the navy and the air force (Amnesty, 2011). Extra attention was bestowed upon the emergency regions of Borno, Niger, Plateau and Yobo (Economist, 2011).

In order to prevent Boko Haram from hiding and regrouping in the neighboring states after being actively fought in Nigeria, the government tightened the border security in the North, however, as it has already been explained, the tactics failed miserably as Boko Haram was able to hide and regroup in Nigeria’s Northern neighbors after being pushed out of Nigeria. The effort to prevent Boko Haram from gaining foreign support, financing and reinforcement were also dysfunctional, as the terrorist group was successful in finding allies. With the support of other Islamist groups such as Al Qaeda, the previously local problem is becoming more globalized and requires equally global and coordinated efforts to fight it.

And yet, so far the policy of Goodluck Johnson was proven counterproductive due to the internal problems of Nigerian security process such as corruption, unjustified violence, extrajudicial killings as opposed to intelligence-based operations (Amnesty, 2011, p. 30). Another problem can be identified in the specific case of Nigeria being a melting pot of cultures and religions. Each region requires a unique approach based on the understanding of the culture, values and customs of the area. Yet, the Nigerian soldiers in charge of the safety of the Northern states were National instead of local, making the indigenous population feel controlled by the foreign body.

So far, the policy of president Muhammadu Buhari, who was elected in 2015, was not much more successful than his predecessor’s. At the beginning of his presidency, Buhari was successful in reclaiming the territory occupied by Boko Haram and was quick to announce the defeat of the terrorist group. However, after losing their ground in Nigeria, Boko Haram again retreated to regroup in the neighboring countries, only to reemerge again multiplied into two distinct terrorist organization, further complicating the resistance. Overall, the use of force has proven to be ineffective in striking down terrorism. The previous examples lead to the conclusion that the use of dialogue and changes in national policies, as opposed to pure force, are crucial for the long term solutions.

Solution to Boko Haram

According to United Nations development program report “Journey to Extremism in Africa: Drivers, Incentives and the Tipping Point for Recruitment” the main factors that make a person prone to get involved with fundamentalism are childhood circumstances, lack of state involvement in their surroundings, religious ideologies, and economic factors (UNDP, 2017). In order to prevent violent extremism, it must be tackled in the roots, because, as we have already seen before, facing violence with further violence approach provided little improvement on the status quo.

Childhood experience may be one of the fundamental reasons for joining extremism later. Members of marginalized communities, in which children were facing personal problems such as lack of parental involvement, lack of education, lack of exposure to different ethnicities and religions, are especially vulnerable. In these borderland areas, the children are rarely entitled to social security, they are often distrustful of the government and do not develop any sense of national belonging. The trust that the government favors some over others is only strengthened by personal witnessing of bribe-paying and corruption. The staggering 78% of the responders of the UN research reported being highly mistrustful of the police, politicians and the military (UNDP, 2017).

The isolation and minimum exposure to other ethnic and religious groups also contribute to the feeling of segregation and suspicion towards others. 51% of recruits have reported having joined due to religious beliefs, some in fear of their religion being endangered. However, even a higher percentage of 57 confessed their understanding of the sacred texts to be limited. This closes the circle of poverty and lack of education, with unemployment being the priority factor for 13% of the volunteer recruits questioned. In the end, are there any possible solutions for this continuous lemniscate (UNDP, 2017)? If there are any they must be in line with the theory of security-development nexus. By increasing the quality of the former, the later will be activated into motion and vice versa. Eliminate one of them and the other will stabilize itself naturally. 

The few solutions tackling both lack of security and slow development can be named, starting with combating the traumatizing childhood experiences. Long term solutions are undoubtedly based on the provision of education and social security which would aim to ensure the school attendance, community support for the parents and child-welfare services. The civil education is no less important to encourage the sense of national belonging and trust in the government, which also includes harsher anti-corruption regulations and more government spending directed to the marginalized communities. Strategies to promote a better understanding of the religion as a counterforce for the ignorance leading to easy recruitment, encouraging religious leaders to develop their own anti-extremism strategy, are also solutions that address the often expressed fears of religious groups who feel excluded, their faith being depreciated. The last but not least are the provision of work opportunities in the risk areas - promoting entrepreneurship, facilitating the access of the markets, upgrading infrastructure, basically creating economic opportunities of dignified employment and livelihood. 

Ideological background-check

In the end, underlying question when analyzing Islamic fundamentalism is this: when a Western liberal state, such as the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and Islamic faith meet, is there a possibility of reasonable conversation? Originating in Europe, liberalism, as a political doctrine, grew as an opposition to religious doctrines, seeking to establish a secular government founded on reason. And although functional in the Western societies, is liberalism really compatible with Christianity, and even more unlikely, is it compatible with Islam?

While liberal societies are open to freedom of religion, the Abrahamic Religions, being based on a notion of a singular truth, are not that welcoming of the freedom of thought, at least when it extends beyond the dogmas. Neither are they originally very tolerant of the beliefs that diverge from their own doctrines. Looking back at the Middle Ages, the time of prosperity of the Catholic Church, it can be said that Catholic social structure stands on the obedience to the Pope and the official doctrine of the Church. When it comes to Islam, following similar logic, one can argue that the caliphate with a society (ummah) ruled under the shari’a law is a basis of Islamic social order. In its fundamental forms, both are considered unalterable and divinely originated and neither is compatible with a relativist liberal state whose basis of legitimacy lies far from God’s will. When the two religious doctrines meet in a nation-state, as in the case of Nigeria, there are arguably only two ends to the story.

The first one, which was already mentioned is Huntington’s idea of the clash of civilizations. He argued that the conflict that happens when Islamic and Western civilizations meet is inherent in their doctrines. A secular modern state, being a Western creation, when incorporating Muslim societies only further enhances the friction due to the fact that "the Muslim concept of Islam as a way of life transcending and uniting religion and politics versus the Western Christian concept of the separate realms of God and Cesar" (Huntington, 2002). This makes it more difficult for the Muslims to adapt to the contemporary reality, as in Islam the idea of nation-state is undermined by the concept of ummah (Huntington, 2002).

And although Huntington’s argument that the inherent beliefs of a single truth in both religions in their fundamental forms make them incompatible with each other as well as with the present-day reality of a nation-state based international order, this line of thinking does not promote any kind of solution to the continuous problem of religious and cultural differences, which often manifest themselves in the oppression of one group by another creating friction – a fertile ground for further religious fundamentalism. In a world where the colliding of the different religions in everyday situations are inevitable, we must search for a middle ground.

This brings us to the second outcome, which is arguably the only one that can ever lead to a peaceful end. It, of course, requires compromise from religious groups, a compromise which nobody is likely to make when it comes to their fundamental beliefs, and much needed yet the same, because only the dialogue can lead to mutual respect and understanding, two things that wipe out hostility and fear rooted into ignorance. The second outcome of inter-religious interaction would be what John Rawls called an overlapping consensus between different comprehensive doctrines (Rawls, 1933). As by definition comprehensive doctrines are those, which are compatible with political liberalism, it inherently carries an idea of the necessity of some doctrines to give up on the segments of their ideologies that are incompatible with the aforementioned system.

The capitalist system, for example, originally was not willingly received by the Catholic social teachings, being considered a source of injustice. However, the Church, although never particularly eager for it, learned to accept the dominance of capitalism as a current reality and live with it (Fred Kammer). But would it be possible with the doctrine of shari’a law, for example, which is, after all, a basis of Muslim faith, as some Muslims believe that being ruled by the law of God is the only righteous path? This kind of comparison is hardly just from the beginning, as Jesus, unlike Muhammad, was never a political leader and Christianity was always religious and never political tradition, while Islam was always both. Shari’a law, as the sovereignty of God over people, is completely incompatible with democracy which is based on the idea of the sovereignty of the people over themselves, and we are forced to come back to the question of willingness to compromise again.

John Rawls argues that “A modern democratic society is characterized not simply by a pluralism of comprehensive religious, philosophical, and moral doctrines but by a pluralism of incompatible yet reasonable comprehensive doctrines,” (Rawls, 1933). The doctrines might as well be incompatible and coexist together, but in the end, they will still have to compromise in order to be compatible with liberalism. The modern world will have to learn to do so sooner or later, to give up their universalist beliefs and give them the benefit of the doubt. This is the price for peace everybody must pay: the weak will have to pay more than the strong, but even the strong cannot use the principle of coercion forever. 

Conclusion

In the end, it can be concluded that the insurgence of Islamic fundamentalism in Africa is grounded in common traits such as historical and religious grievances, the relative poverty of one group in proportion to the other, lack of governmental presence and aid in some of the regions. On the micro-level, people are more willing to be recruited when they are uneducated, belong to segregated religious communities, live in relative poverty, do not receive support from the government and live without hope for a better future.

The solution to the spread of extremism, as it has been demonstrated by the example of Nigeria and Cameroon, cannot be rooted purely in the military missions, as they tend to get violent and further decrease the trust of the civilians in their government, closing a circle of us vs. them mentality. The means for solving the problem should include higher governmental presence and aid in the development of the afflicted regions, in the effort of further integration of currently segregated societies by helping them form a part of wider national identity. The idea of integration also transcends to the ideological, religious and cultural level as Islamic fundamentalism often arises from the rejection of Western culture and values that often feel imposed and foreign in the Muslim communities.

The key to the inter-religious conversation, especially when we are talking about Islam and Christianity, two religions that clash ideologically due to mutual assertiveness of sole truth, is the willingness to compromise and adapt to the current social order. If the roots of the problem are not cut off, the friction will continue on to transcend the ideological sphere and manifest itself in the military conflicts, terrorism, even big-scale wars. In an increasingly smaller world, in which the inter-religious interactions cannot be avoided, the decisions must be made. After all, how long we can live in the clash of civilizations?

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amnesty, I. (2011). Nigeria: Human Rights Agenda 2011-2015. Amnesty International Publications, 30.

Amoo, A. (2018, July 30). educeleb.com. Retrieved from educeleb.com: https://educeleb.com/young-adult-literacy-rate-in-nigeria/

Collier, P. (2007). The Bottom Billion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Comolli, V. (2017). The evolution and impact of Boko Haram in the Lake Chad Basin. Humanitarian Exchange, 7-10.

Economist, T. (2011). Nigeria's New Government: One and a Half Cheers for the Economy. None for Security. Economist, 56.

Fred Kammer, S. (n.d.). Catholicism and Capitalism. Retrieved from http://www.loyno.edu/jsri/catholicism-and-capitalism

Amnesty, I. (2011). Nigeria: Human Rights Agenda 2011-2015. Amnesty International Publications, 30.

Amoo, A. (2018, July 30). educeleb.com. Retrieved from educeleb.com: https://educeleb.com/young-adult-literacy-rate-in-nigeria/

Collier, P. (2007). The Bottom Billion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Comolli, V. (2017). The evolution and impact of Boko Haram in the Lake Chad Basin. Humanitarian Exchange, 7-10.

Economist, T. (2011). Nigeria's New Government: One and a Half Cheers for the Economy. None for Security. Economist, 56.

Fred Kammer, S. (n.d.). Catholicism and Capitalism. Retrieved from http://www.loyno.edu/jsri/catholicism-and-capitalism

Heungoup, H. D. (2016, April 6). Q&A: Boko Haram in Cameroon. Retrieved from International Crisis Group : https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/central-africa/cameroon/q-boko-haram-cameroon

https://educeleb.com/young-adult-literacy-rate-in-nigeria/. (n.d.).

Huntington, S. P. (2002). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: SIMON & SCHUSTER.

Ibrahim Index of African Governance. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mo Ibrahim Foundation: http://iiag.online

Lake Chad attack: 'Dozens of fishermen' killed near Cameroon border. (2020, January 3). Retrieved from BBC News: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50987123

News, B. (2020, January 3). Retrieved from BBC News: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50987123

News, B. (2020). Lake Chad attack: 'Dozens of fishermen' killed near Cameroon border. BBC News.

News, B. (2020). Lake Chad attack: 'Dozens of fishermen' killed near Cameroon border. BBC News.

Okpi, A. (2018, August 29). Africa Check. Retrieved from Africa Check: https://africacheck.org/reports/nigerias-economy-services-drive-gdp-but-oil-still-dominates-exports/

Rawls, J. (1933). Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.

Smith, D. (2009). Nigeria Islamist group leader killed in police custody. The Guardian.

Solomon, H. (2012). Counter-Terrorism in Nigeria: Responding to Boko Haram. The Rusi Journal, 6-11.

Thomson, V. (2012). Boko Haram and Islamic Fundamentalism in Nigeria. Global Security Studies, 46-57.

UNDP, U. N. (2017). Journey to Extremism in Africa: Drivers. Incentives and the Tipping Point for Recruitment. new York: United Nations Development Programme.

Yusuf, M. (2009, July 31). (BBC News, Interviewer)

Categorías Global Affairs: África Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos

A demonstration in Beirut as part of 2019 protests [Wikimedia Commons]

▲ A demonstration in Beirut as part of 2019 protests [Wikimedia Commons]

ESSAYDavid España Font

1. Introduction

A shared feeling has been rising across the globe for the last three years, but with special strength during the last six months. The demonstrations since February in Algeria, since September in Egypt, Indonesia, Peru or Haiti, and in Chile, Iraq or Lebanon since October are just some manifestations of this feeling. The primary objective of this essay will not be to find a correlation among all demonstrations but rather to focus on the Lebanese governmental collapse. The collapse of the Lebanese government is one example of the widespread failure most politicians in the Middle East have to meet public needs.[i]

Regarding the protests that have been taking place in Egypt and the Levant, it is key to differentiate these uprisings from the so-called Arab Spring that took place in 2011, and which caused a scene of chaos all over the region, leading to the collapse of many regimes.[ii] The revolutionary wave from 2011, became a spark that precipitated into many civil wars such as those in Libya, Yemen or Syria. It is important to note that, the uprisings that are taking place at the moment are happening in the countries that did not fall into civil war when the Arab Spring of 2011 took place.

This essay will put the focus on the issue of whether the political power in Lebanon is legitimate, or it should be changed. Are the Lebanese aiming at a change in leadership or rather at a systemic change in their political system? This essay id divided into four different parts. First, a brief introduction summarizes the development of the October demonstrations. Second, it throws a quick overview into recent political history, starting from the formation of the Lebanese state. Third, it will approach the core question, namely which type of change is required. Finally, a brief conclusion sums up the key ideas.

2. October 2019

On Thursday October 17th, thousands of people jumped into the streets of Beirut to protest against political corruption, the nepotism of the public sector and the entrenched political class. There hadn’t been a manifestation of public discontent as big as this one since the end of the civil war in 1990. The demonstration was sparked by the introduction of a package of new taxes, one of which aimed at WhatsApp calls.[iii] Roads were blocked for ten days in a row while citizens kept demanding for the entire political class to resign. Although, apparently, the demands were the same as those forwarded in 2011, the protests might have been looking more for a change in the whole political system than for mere changes in leadership.

It must not be forgotten the fact that Hasan Nasrallah, the leader of Hezbollah, warned that such protests could lead to another civil war and that the right to demonstrate had to be abolished as soon as possible. He literally stated: “I’m not threatening anyone, I’m describing the situation. We are not afraid for the resistance; we are afraid for the country.”[iv] Certainly, a change in the political power could make   such a power notably stronger, Hezbollah is now enjoying the weakness of the Lebanese political power and prefers to maintain the status quo.

This arising conflict must be analysed bearing in mind the very complicated governmental structure which seems to be very effective towards conflict avoidance, but not towards development and progress. The country is governed by a power-sharing system aimed at guaranteeing political representation for all the country's 18 sects.[v] Lebanon’s government is designed to provide political representation of all Lebanese religious groups, the largest ones being the Maronites, the Shiite and the Sunni. The numbers of seats in the Parliament is allotted among the different denominations within each religion. The President must always be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni and the Speaker of Parliament as Shiite.[vi]

Therefore, it goes without saying that the structure of the political power is designed for survival rather than for coexistence. Each representative is inclined to use his position in favour of the interest of the sects that he belongs to instead of that of the national, common interest. There is no chance for common policies to be agreed as long as any of these interfere with the preferences of any one of the sects.

3. A quick overview into recent history

Since the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire managed to control all the region today known as Levant and Egypt. However, the area known as Mount Lebanon remained out of its direct influence[vii]. The region became a self-governed area controlled by powerful Christian Maronite families. Because the Ottoman Empire did not allow European Christians to settle in the territory and benefit from trading activities, the Europeans used the Lebanese Maronites as their commercial representatives.[viii] This was one of the main ways how the European legacy penetrated the region, and one of the reasons that explains why Christians in Lebanon and Syria had a good command of French even before the arrival of the French mandate, and why they became, and still are, richer than the Muslims.

Following World War I, the League of Nations awarded France the mandate over the northern portion of the former Ottoman province of Syria, which included the region of the Mount Lebanon. This was a consequence of the signature in 1916 of the Sykes-Picot Agreement, by which the British and the French divided the Middle East into two areas put under their control. The British would control the South, and the French the North.[ix]

In 1920 the French carved out the region of Lebanon from their mandated area. The region would later be granted the independence in 1943. The means of such demarcation had as primary objective the guarantee and protection of the Christian’s free and independent existence in the Muslim Arab world, not even the protection of their rights but rather the recognition of their existence. Since the very first moment of Lebanon’s establishment as a separate territory from Syria, Sunni Muslims rejected the very idea of a Lebanese state which was perceived as an act of French colonialism with the objective of dividing and weakening what was perceived to be the united Arab Nation.[x]

Because the preservation of the greater Lebanon was the primary objective for the Christians and they were not going to give up that objective for the sake of a united Arab Nation, a gap between the Maronite and the Sunni communities opened that had to be closed. The legal agreement that came up from efforts in this sense came to be known as the National Pact of 1943 “al-Mithaq al-Watani.”[xi] At the heart of the negotiations was on the one hand the Christians' fear of being overwhelmed by the Arab countries, and on the other hand the Muslims' fear of Western hegemony. In return for the Christian to accept Lebanon's "Arab face," the Muslim side agreed to recognize the independence and legitimacy of the Lebanese state in its 1920 boundaries and to renounce aspirations for union with Syria.[xii]

With hindsight, the pact may be assessed as the least bad political option that could be reached at this time. However, as mentioned earlier, this pact has led to a development of the governmental structure that doesn’t lead to political construction and development but rather to mere survival.

4. Change in leadership or systemic change?

The issue at stake is very much related to the legitimacy that could be given to the Lebanese political power. In order to tackle this issue, a basic approach to these terms is a must.

The concept of political power is very vague and might be difficult to find a set definition for it; the basic approach could be “a power exercised in a political community for the attainment of the ends that pertain to the community.”[xiii] In order to be political, power inherently requires  legitimacy. When the power is fully adapted to the community, only then this power can be considered a political power and therefore, a legitimate power.[xiv] While it is possible to legitimize a power that is divided into a wide variety of sects, it cannot be denied that such power is not fully adapted to the community, but simply divided between the different communities.

Perhaps, the issue in this case is that there cannot be such a thing as “a community” for the different sects that conform the Lebanese society. Perry Anderson[xv] states that in 2005, the Saudi Crown reintroduced the millionaire Rafik Hariri into the Lebanese politics getting him to become prime minister. In return, Hariri had to allow the Salafists to preach in Sunni villages and cities, up to the point that his son, Saad, does not manage to control the Sunni community any longer. How is it possible to avoid such a widespread division of sects in a region where politics of influence are played by every minimally significant power?

Furthermore, in order to be legitimate, power must safeguard the political community. However, going deeper into the matter, it is essential that a legitimate power transcends the simple function of safeguarding and assumes the responsibility of maintaining the development of the community. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, in this case there might be no such thing as a community; therefore, the capacity of the political power in this specific case, legitimacy might be link to the idea of leading the project of building and developing such idea of community under one united political entity. Possibly, the key to achieve a sense of community might be the abolition of confession-based politics however…is it possible?

Additionally, another reason for which I do not believe that there is a full politization of the state is because it has still not transitioned from power, understood as force, into power understood as order. The mere presence of an Iranian backed militia in the country which does have a notable degree of influence on the political decisions doesn’t allow for such an important change to happen. In the theory, the state should recover the full control of military power however, the reality is that Lebanon does need the military efforts of the Shiite militia.  

Finally, a last way to understand the legitimacy of the power can be through acceptance. Legitimacy consists on the consent given to the power, which implies the disposition to obey of the community, and the acceptance of the capacity to force, of the power[xvi]. Until now there has been acceptance. However, being these protests the biggest ones seen since the end of the civil war, it is an important factor to bear in mind. It might be that these protests delegitimize the political power, or they might simply reflect the euphoric hit that many of these events tend to cause before disappearing.

5. Conclusion

After three months since the beginning of the protests, it seems that steps have been taken backwards rather than forwards. Could Hariri’s resignation mean a step forward towards the construction of the community and the abolition of the sectarian division?

The key idea is the nature of the 1943 agreement. The Pact’s core idea was to help overcome any philosophical divisions between the two main communities, the Christian and the Sunni. The Christians were not willing to accept a united Arab Nation with Syria, and the Muslims were not willing to be fully ruled by the Christians. However, 80 years later, the importance of confessionalism in the political structure is still there, it has not diminished.

To sum up, there are two additional ideas to be emphasised. One is that Lebanon was created in order to remain a non-Muslim state in an Arab world, the second one is that the principal reason for stating that the political powers in the Arab world have so little legitimacy is because of the intrusion of other regional powers in the nation’s construction of a community and the persistent war that is being fought between the Sunni and the Shiite in the region in

[i] B. Alterman, J. (2019). Lebanon’s Government Collapses. Retrieved 16 December 2019, from 

[ii] B. Alterman, J. (2019). Lebanon’s Government Collapses. Retrieved 16 December 2019, from

[iii] B. Alterman, J. (2019). Lebanon’s Government Collapses. Retrieved 16 December 2019, from

[iv] B. Alterman, J. (2019). Lebanon’s Government Collapses. Retrieved 16 December 2019, from

[v] CIA. (2019). World Factbook (p. Lebanese government). USA.

[vi] CIA. (2019). World Factbook (p. Lebanese government). USA.

[vii] Hourani, A. (2013). A history of the Arab peoples (p.). London: Faber and Faber.

[viii] el-Khazen, F. (1991). The Comnlunal Pact of National Identities: The Making and Politics of the 1943 National Pact [Ebook] (1st ed., pp. 7, 13, 14, 49, 52,). Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford. Retrieved from

[ix] Taber, A. (2016). The lines that bind (1st ed.). Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.

[x] el-Khazen, F. (1991). The Comnlunal Pact of National Identities: The Making and Politics of the 1943 National Pact [Ebook] (1st ed., pp. 7, 13, 14, 49, 52,). Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford. Retrieved from

[xi] el-Khazen, F. (1991). The Comnlunal Pact of National Identities: The Making and Politics of the 1943 National Pact [Ebook] (1st ed., pp. 7, 13, 14, 49, 52,). Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford. Retrieved from

[xii] Thomas Collelo, ed. Lebanon: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987.

[xiii] Zemsky, B. (2019). 2000 [Blog]

[xiv] Cruz Prados, A. (2000). Ethos y Polis (2nd ed., pp. 377-400). Pamplona: EUNSA.

[xv] Mourad, S. El mosaico del islam: una conversación con Perry Anderson (1st ed., pp. 81-82). Madrid: Siglo XXI de España Editores, S. A., 2018.

[xvi] Jarvis Thomson, J. (1990). The Realm of Rights (1st ed., p. 359). Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Categorías Global Affairs: Oriente Medio Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos

US border patrol vehicle near the fence with Mexico [Wikimedia Commons]

▲ US border patrol vehicle near the fence with Mexico [Wikimedia Commons]

ESSAYGabriel de Lange

I. Current issues in the Northern Triangle

In recent years, the relationship between the Northern Triangle Countries (NTC) –Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador– and it’s northern neighbours Mexico and the United States has been marked in mainstream media for their surging migration patterns. As of 2019, a total of 977,509 individuals have been apprehended at the Southwest border of the US (the border with Mexico) as compared to 521,093 the previous year (years in terms of US fiscal years). Of this number, an estimated 75% have come from the NTC[1]. These individuals are typically divided into three categories: single adults, family units, and unaccompanied alien children (UAC).

As the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) reports, over 65% of the population of the NTC are below 29 years of age[2]. This is why it is rather alarming to see an increasing number of the youth population from these countries leaving their homes and becoming UAC at the border.

Why are these youths migrating? Many studies normally associate this to “push factors.” The first factor being an increase in insecurity and violence, particularly from transnational organised crime, gangs, and narco-trafficking[3]. It is calculated that six children flee to the US for every ten homicides in the Northern Triangle[4]. The second significant factor is weak governance and corruption; this undermines public trust in the system, worsens the effects of criminal activity, and diverts funds meant to improve infrastructure and social service systems. The third factor is poverty and lack of economic development; for example in Guatemala and Honduras, roughly 60% of people live below the poverty line[5].

The other perspective to explain migration is through what are called “pull factors.” An example would be the lure of economic possibilities abroad, like the high US demand for low-skilled workers, a service that citizens of NTC can provide and be better paid for that in their home countries. Another pull factor worth mentioning is lax immigration laws, if the consequences for illegal entry into a country are light, then individuals are more likely to migrate for the chance at attaining better work, educational, and healthcare opportunities[6].

II. US administrations’ strategies

A. The Obama administration (2008-2015)

The Obama administration for the most part used the carrot and soft power approach in its engagement with the NTC. Its main goals in the region being to “improve security, strengthen governance, and promote economic prosperity in the region”, it saw these developments in the NTC as being in the best interest of US national security[7].

In 2014, in the wake of the massive surge of migrants, specially UACs, the administration launched the reform initiative titled the Plan of the Alliance for Prosperity (A4P). The plan expanded across Central America but with special focus on the NTC. This was a five year plan to address these “push factors” that cause people to migrate. The four main ways that the initiative aims to accomplish this is by promoting the following: first, by fostering the productivity sector to address the region’s economic instability; second, by developing human capital to increase the quality of life, which improves education, healthcare and social services; third, improving citizen security and access to justices to address the insecurity and violence threat, and lastly, strengthening institutions and improving transparency to address the concerns for weak governance and corruption[8].

This initiative would receive direct technical support and financing from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). In addition, major funding was to be provided by the US, which for the fiscal years of 2015-2018 committed $2.6 billion split for bilateral assistance, Regional Security Strategy (RSS), and other regional services[9]. The NTC governments themselves were major financiers of the initiative, committing approximately $8.6 billion between 2016-2018[10].

The administration even launched programs with the US Agency for International Development (USAID). The principle one being the Central American Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), with a heavy focus on the NTC and it’s security issues, which allotted a budget of $1.2 billion in 2008. This would later evolve into the larger framework of US Strategy for Engagement in Central America in 2016.

The Obama administration also launched in 2015 the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals  (DACA), which currently allows individuals who were brought to the US as children, and have unlawful statuses to receive a renewable two-year period of deferred action from deportation[11]. It is a policy that the Trump administration has been fighting to remove these last few years.

Although the Obama administration was quite diplomatic and optimistic in its approach, that didn’t mean it didn’t make efforts to lessen the migration factors in more aggressive ways too. In fact, the administration reportedly deported over three million illegal immigrants through the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), the highest amount of deportations taking place in the fiscal year of 2012 reaching 409,849 which was higher than any single one of the Trump administration’s reported fiscal years to date[12].

In addition, the Obama administration used educational campaigns to discourage individuals from trying to cross into the US illegally. In 2014 they also launched a Central American Minors (CAM) camp targeting children from the NTC and providing a “safe, legal and orderly alternative to US migration”[13]. This however was later scrapped by the Trump Administration, along with any sense of reassessment brought about by Obama’s carrot approach. 

 

Number of apprehensions and inadmissibles on the US border with Mexico [Source: CBP]

Number of apprehensions and inadmissibles on the US border with Mexico [Source: CBP]

 

B. The Trump administration (2016-present)        

The Trump administration’s strategy in the region has undoubtedly gone with the stick approach. The infamous “zero tolerance policy” which took place from April-June 2018 is a testimony to this idea, resulting in the separation of thousands of children from their parents and being reclassified as UAC[14]. This was in an attempt to discourage individuals in the NTC from illegally entering the US and address these lax immigration laws.

From early on Trump campaigned based on the idea of placing America’s interests first, and as a result has reevaluated many international treaties and policies. In 2016 the administration proposed scaling back funds for the NTC through the A4P, however this was blocked in Congress and the funds went through albeit in a decreasing value starting with $754 million in 2016 to only $535 million in 2019.

Another significant difference between the two administrations is that while Obama’s focused on large multi-lateral initiatives like the A4P, the Trump administration has elected to focus on a more bilateral approach, one that goes back and forth between cooperation and threats, to compliment the existing strategy.

Towards the end of 2018 the US and Mexico had announced the concept of a “Marshal Plan” for Central America with both countries proposing large sums of money to be given annually to help improve the economic and security conditions in the NTC. However in this last year it has become more apparent that there will be difficulties raising funds, especially due to their reliance on private investment organisations and lack of executive cooperation. Just last May, Trump threatened to place tariffs on Mexico due to its inability to decrease immigration flow. President López Obrador responded by deploying the National Guard to Mexico’s border with Guatemala, resulting in a decrease of border apprehensions by 56%[15] on the US Southwest border. This shows that the stick method can achieve results, but that real cooperation can not be achieved if leaders don’t see eye to eye and follow through on commitments. If large amount of funding where to be put in vague unclear programs and goals in the NTC, it is likely to end up in the wrong hands due to corruption[16].  

In terms of bilateral agreements with NTC countries, Trump has been successful in negotiation with Guatemala and Honduras in signing asylum cooperative agreements, which has many similarities with a safe third country agreement, though not exactly worded as such. Trump struck a similar deal with El Salvador, though sweetened it by granting a solution for over 200,000 Salvadorans living in US under a Temporary Protection Status (TPS).[17]

However, Trump has not been the only interested party in the NTC and Mexico. The United Nations’ ECLAC launched last year its “El Salvador-Guatemala-Honduras-Mexico Comprehensive Development Program”, which aims to target the root causes of migration in the NTC. It does this by promoting policies that relate to the UN 2030 agenda and the 17 sustainable development goals. The four pillars of this initiative being: economic development, social well-being, environmental sustainability, and comprehensive management of migratory patters[18]. However the financing behind this initiative remains ambiguous and the goals behind it seem redundant. They reflect the same goals established by the A4P, just simply under a different entity.

The main difference between the Obama and Trump administrations is that the A4P takes a slow approach aiming to address the fundamental issues triggering migration patterns, the results of which will likely take 10-15 years and steady multi-lateral investment to see real progress. Meanwhile the Trump administration aims to get quick results by creating bilateral agreements with these NTC in order to distribute the negative effects of migration among them and lifting the immediate burden. Separately, neither strategy appears wholesome and convincing enough to rally congressional and public support. However, the combination of all initiatives –investing effort both in the long and short run, along with additional initiatives like ECLAC’s program to reinforce the region’s goals– could perhaps be the most effective mechanism to combat insecurity, weak governance, and economic hardships in the NTC.


[1] Nowrasteh, Alex. “1.3 Percent of All Central Americans in the Northern Triangle Were Apprehended by Border Patrol This Fiscal Year - So Far”. Cato at Library. June 7, 2019. Accessed November 8, 2019.

[2] N/A. “Triángulo Norte: Construyendo Confianza, Creando Oportunidades.” Inter-American Development Bank. Accessed November 5, 2019.

[3] Orozco, Manuel. “Central American Migration: Current Changes and Development Implications.” The Dialogue. November 2018. Accessed November 2019. 

[4] Bell, Caroline. “Where is the Northern Triangle?” The Borgen Project. October 23, 2019. Accessed November 6, 2019. 

[5] Cheatham, Amelia. “Central America’s Turbulent Northern Triangle.” Council on Foreign Relations. October 1, 2019. Accessed November 6, 2019. 

[6] Arthur, R. Andrew. “Unaccompanied Alien Children and the Crisis at the Border.” Center for Immigration Studies. April 1, 2019. Accessed November 9, 2019. 

[7] Members and Committees of Congress. “U.S. Strategy for Engagement in Central America: Policy Issues for Congress.” Congressional Research Service. Updated November 12, 2019. November 13, 2019.  

[8] N/A. “Strategic Pillars and Lines of Action.” Inter-American Development Bank. 2019. Accessed November 10, 2019. 

[9] N/A. “Budgetary Resources Allocated for the Plan of the Alliance for Prosperity.” Inter-American Development Bank. N/A. Accessed November 10, 2019. 

[10] Schneider, L. Mark. Matera, A. Michael. “Where Are the Northern Triangle Countries Headed? And What Is U.S. Policy?” Centre for Strategic and International Studies. August 20, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019. 

[11] N/A. “Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA).” Department of Homeland Security. N/A. Accessed November 12, 2019.  

[12] Kight, W. Stef. Treene, Alayna. “Trump isn’t Matching Obama deportation numbers.” Axios. June 21, 2019. Accessed November 13, 2019. 

[13] N/A. “Unaccompanied Alien Children: An Overview.” Congressional Research Service. October 9, 2019. Accessed November 10, 2019.  

[14] N/A. “Unaccompanied Alien Children: An Overview.” Congressional Research Service. October 9, 2019. Accessed November 10, 2019. 

[15] Nagovitch, Paola. “Explainer: U.S. Immigration Deals with Northern Triangle Countries and Mexico.” American Society/Council of Americans. October 3, 2019. Accessed November 10, 2019. 

[16] Berg, C. Ryan. “A Central American Martial Plan Won’t Work.” Foreign Policy. March 5, 2019. Accessed November 11, 2019. 

[17] Nagovitch, Paola. “Explainer: U.S. Immigration Deals with Northern Triangle Countries and Mexico.” American Society/Council of Americans. October 3, 2019. Accessed November 10, 2019. 

[18] Press Release. “El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico Reaffirm their Commitment to the Comprehensive Development Plan.” ECLAC. September 19,2019. Accessed November 11, 2019. 

Categorías Global Affairs: Norteamérica Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Latinoamérica Ensayos

Las operaciones en el ciberespacio pueden formar parte de una situación de guerra híbrida llevada a cabo por actores estales o no estatales [Pixabay]

▲ Las operaciones en el ciberespacio pueden formar parte de una situación de guerra híbrida llevada a cabo por actores estales o no estatales [Pixabay]

ENSAYO / Ana Salas Cuevas

La amenaza híbrida es un término que engloba todo tipo de actuaciones coordinadas para influir en la toma de decisiones de los Estados, haciendo uso de medios políticos, económicos, militares, civiles e información. Estas acciones pueden ser realizadas tanto por actores estatales como por actores no estatales.

Se utiliza el término “Grey Zone” (Zona Gris) para determinar la frontera entre paz y guerra. Se trata de una nueva táctica que nada tiene que ver con la guerra real que enfrenta a ejércitos de distintos Estados. La guerra híbrida consiste en lograr resultados influyendo directamente en la sociedad mediante la desmoralización de esta. Es una táctica sin duda efectiva y mucho más sencilla para los países atacantes, ya que la inversión tanto económica como humana es menor que en la guerra real. Se utilizan recursos como la propaganda, la manipulación de las comunicaciones, los bloqueos económicos… Y al no existir una legislación internacional férrea en relación a estos conflictos, muchos países consideran este tipo de actuaciones como tolerables.

Introducción: La amenaza híbrida

El término amenaza híbrida se popularizó tras el choque entre Israel y Hezbolá en 2006 para designar a “la integración de tácticas, técnicas y procedimientos no convencionales e irregulares, mezclados con actos terroristas, propaganda y conexiones con el crimen organizado”[1].

El objetivo esencial de la amenaza híbrida es lograr resultados sin recurrir a la guerra real, enfrentando a las sociedades y no a los ejércitos, desmoronando casi por completo la distinción entre combatientes y ciudadanos. El objetivo militar pasa a un segundo plano.

Las acciones llevadas a cabo en el seno de este tipo de conflictos se centran en el empleo de medios como ciberataques, desinformación y propaganda. Tienen como objetivo la explotación de vulnerabilidades económicas, políticas, tecnológicas y diplomáticas, quebrantando comunidades, partidos nacionales, sistemas electorales y produciendo un gran efecto en el sector energético. Estas actuaciones no son aleatorias, están planeadas y organizadas. Estos ataques no tienen un carácter lineal. Pueden tener consecuencias directas en otro ámbito. Por ejemplo, el ataque con drones en pozos de Arabia Saudí en septiembre de 2019 tuvo un impacto directo en la economía global.

El ciberespacio se ha convertido en un aspecto novedoso en este escenario. Gracias en gran medida a la revolución tecnológica y de la información, nos encontramos hoy ante un orden mundial cambiante, en el cual la información que proporcionan los medios de comunicación es accesible a cualquier persona desde cualquier parte del mundo. No es casual, por tanto, que Internet sea uno de los frentes más importantes al hablar de guerra híbrida. En ese ámbito, las reglas no están claramente establecidas y los Estados y actores no estatales tienen un mayor margen de actuación frente al poder clásico de los Estados. Las “fake news”, la desinformación y los hechos basados en opiniones son instrumentos al alcance de la mano de cualquiera para influir sobre el orden público.

A través de la manipulación en estos ámbitos, el enemigo híbrido logra debilitar considerablemente uno de los pilares más importantes del Estado o comunidad al que vayan dirigidas sus acciones: la confianza de los ciudadanos en sus instituciones.

La ambigüedad es una de las características que distinguen la actividad en el ámbito cibernético. El enemigo híbrido no solo explota a su favor la dificultad inherente a la red global para atribuir acciones hostiles a un actor concreto, sino que la refuerza mediante el uso de estrategias híbridas como la sincronización.

Ciberterrorismo y hacktivismo

Como acabamos de ver, el ciberespacio constituye uno de los dominios preferentes del enemigo híbrido. En él, recurrirá frecuentemente a la ciberamenaza, una amenaza trasversal con una muy difícil atribución de la autoría. Esta no logra sustanciarse fehacientemente en la mayoría de los casos, en los que únicamente se cuenta con sospechas, siendo muy complicada la obtención de pruebas. Estas ciberamenazas las podríamos dividir en cuatro bloques que procederemos a analizar uno por uno.

En primer lugar, el ciberespionaje tiene como objetivo el ámbito político, económico y militar. Numerosos estados recurren al ciberespionaje de manera rutinaria. Entre ellos, destacan algunos como China, Rusia, Irán o Estados Unidos. Los Estados pueden llevar a cabo acciones de ciberespionaje de forma directa, utilizando sus servicios de inteligencia, o a través de agentes interpuestos como empresas influenciadas por dichos Estados.

En segundo lugar, el ciberdelito, en la mayoría de los casos ejercido con fines lucrativos, y cuyo impacto sobre la economía global se estima en un 2% del PIB mundial. Los objetivos principales del ciberdelito son el robo de información, el fraude, el blanqueo de dinero, etc. Suele llevarse a cabo por organizaciones terroristas, de crimen organizado y hackers.

En tercer lugar, el ciberterrorismo, cuyos objetivos principales son la obtención de información y todo tipo de comunicaciones a los ciudadanos. Los agentes principales, como se puede deducir, son las organizaciones terroristas y las agencias de inteligencia.

El ciberterrorismo tiene una serie de ventajas con respecto al terrorismo convencional, y es que garantiza una mayor seguridad sobre el anonimato, además, existe una mayor relación entre coste-beneficio y en el ámbito geográfico se presenta una gran ventaja en cuanto a la delimitación. En España se dio una reforma de los delitos de terrorismo mediante la Ley Orgánica 2/2015, en la cual se reformaron en su totalidad los artículos 571 a 580 del Código Penal. De forma paralela, mediante Ley Orgánica 1/2015 se aprobó, asimismo, la reforma del Código Penal, afectando a más de 300 artículos[2].

Por último, en cuarto lugar, el hacktivismo, cuyos objetivos principales son los servicios webs, junto con el robo y la publicación no autorizada de información. Cuando el hacktivismo se utiliza en beneficio del terrorismo, pasa a ser terrorismo. El grupo terrorista islámico DAESH, por ejemplo, utiliza medios cibernéticos para el reclutamiento de combatientes a sus filas. Como agentes destacan dos grupos, el grupo “Anonymus” y “Luizsec,” además de los propios servicios de inteligencia.

El ciberterrorismo tiene fines muy concretos: subvertir el orden constitucional, alterar gravemente la paz social y destruir nuestro modelo global. Se trata de una amenaza emergente de baja probabilidad, pero alto impacto. El problema principal de todo ello es la poca legislación existente al respecto, pero que poco a poco va emergiendo; por ejemplo, en 2013 se dio el punto de partida con la publicación de una comunicación del Consejo de la Unión Europea sobre seguridad –la “Estrategia de ciberseguridad de la Unión Europea”[3]–, a partir de la cual cada 5 años las estrategias deben ser revisadas. Se suma a ello el reglamento 2019/881 del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo (UE) de 17 de abril de 2019.

Zona gris

El concepto de zona gris ha sido acuñado recientemente en el ámbito de los estudios estratégicos para describir el marco de actuación del enemigo híbrido. El término describe un estado de tensión alternativo a la guerra, operando en una etapa de paz formal.

El conflicto en la zona gris está centrado en la sociedad civil. Su coste, por tanto, recae directamente sobre la población. Opera en todo caso en el límite de la legalidad internacional. El protagonista es generalmente un Estado de principal importancia en el plano internacional (una potencia) o un actor no estatal de similar influencia.

Las acciones de un enemigo que opera en la zona gris están destinadas al dominio de determinadas “zonas” que le resultan de interés. Los tipos de respuesta dentro de lo definido como zona gris dependerán de la amenaza a la que se enfrente el país en cuestión.

Punto de vista jurídico

Si hablamos desde un punto de vista jurídico, es más preciso utilizar el término guerra híbrida, solo cuando existe un conflicto armado declarado y no encubierto.

En efecto, un gran problema surge de la dificultad para aplicar a los actores de las amenazas híbridas la legislación nacional o internacional oportuna. Los agentes que se ven envueltos, por regla general, niegan las acciones híbridas y tratan de escapar de las consecuencias jurídicas de sus acciones, aprovechándose de la complejidad del ordenamiento jurídico. Actúan bordeando los límites, operando en espacios no regulados y sin sobrepasar nunca los umbrales legales.

Respuestas ante las amenazas híbridas

La respuesta a la amenaza híbrida puede producirse en diferentes ámbitos, no excluyentes entre sí. En el ámbito militar, se puede llegar a concebir incluso una confrontación militar directa, que puede verse como “tolerable” si con ella se evita el enfrentamiento con una gran potencia como podría ser Estados Unidos o China. De la misma manera, son respetadas estas confrontaciones militares por la indefensión de los territorios ocupados ante la amenaza que pretende prevenir el Estado ocupante.

En el ámbito económico, la respuesta permite imponer sobre un enemigo costes de tipo financiero, que son a veces más directos que las respuestas militares. En este campo, una manera de adoptar medidas defensivas no provocativas es a través de la imposición de sanciones económicas inmediatas y formales a un agresor.

Un ejemplo de esto son las sanciones económicas que Estados Unidos impuso contra Irán por considerar este país como una amenaza nuclear. Para ello es importante destacar el fondo de este asunto.

En 2015 se firmó el Plan de Acción Integral Conjunto (PAIC) sobre el programa nuclear de Irán, por el que este país se comprometía a cumplir el acuerdo y Estados Unidos a retirar las sanciones económicas impuestas. Sin embargo, en 2018 Trump anunció la retirada del acuerdo y el restablecimiento de las sanciones. En el transcurso de estos acontecimientos, diversos países se han pronunciado sobre estas decisiones unilaterales tomadas por el gobierno estadounidense. China y Rusia, por su parte, han manifestado su disconformidad, realizando declaraciones oficiales a favor de Irán.

El de Irán constituye un claro ejemplo de respuesta económica sobre la zona gris, en el que se ve cómo los Estados utilizan este elemento de poder para negar la participación del agresor en diferentes instituciones o acuerdos y controlar su zona de influencia.

Estados Unidos, como muchas otras potencias, encuentra esta situación de superioridad una ventaja decisiva en los conflictos comprendidos dentro de la zona gris. Debido a la importancia del poder financiero y político de Estados Unidos, el resto de los países, incluida la Unión Europea, no pueden sino aceptar este tipo de acciones unilaterales.

Conclusiones

A modo de cierre, podemos concluir que la actividad híbrida en la zona gris tiene importantes consecuencias sobre el conjunto de la sociedad de uno o más Estados, y produce efectos que pueden llegar a tener un alcance global.

Las amenazas híbridas afectan fundamentalmente a la sociedad civil, pudiendo producir un efecto desmoralizador que provoque el hundimiento psicológico de un Estado. El empleo de esta táctica se denomina a menudo como “paz formal”. A pesar de no existir un enfrentamiento directo entre ejércitos, esta técnica es mucho más efectiva ya que el país atacante no necesita invertir tanto dinero, tiempo y personas como en la guerra real. Además, la aplicación del Derecho Internacional o la intervención de terceros países en el conflicto es mínima, ya que muchos consideran este tipo de actuaciones como “tolerables”.

Sin duda, la zona gris y las amenazas hibridas se han convertido en la nueva técnica militar de nuestra era debido a su eficacia y simplicidad. No obstante, debería existir un control más férreo para que este tipo de técnicas militares tan nocivas dejen de pasar desapercibidas.

Un aspecto característico de la guerra híbrida es la manipulación de las comunicaciones y el uso de la propaganda. Con estas acciones se consigue sembrar la desconfianza de los ciudadanos en sus instituciones, tal y como ocurre hoy en día en la relación entre China y Estados Unidos, lastrada por declaraciones norteamericanas a la prensa acerca del plan presentado por Xi Jinping en 2014 sobre la Nueva Ruta de la Seda, y que denotan un alto grado desconfianza y rechazo hacia el Imperio del Centro.

Por tanto, es conveniente que los Estados e instituciones internacionales establezcan unas “normas de juego” para este tipo de actuaciones y mantener así el orden y la paz mundial.
 

Una primera redacción de este texto fue presentada como comunicación en el XXVII Curso Internacional de Defensa celebrado en Jaca en octubre de 2019

 

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Rubén Arcos. (2019). EU and NATO confront hybrid threats in centre of excellence. 2019, de Jane's Intelligence Review. Sitio web

Publisher: Geert Cami Senior Fellow: Jamie Shea Programme Manager: Mikaela d’Angelo Programme Assistant: Gerard Huerta Editor: Iiris André, Robert Arenella Design: Elza Lőw. (2018). HYBRID AND TRANSNATIONAL THREATS. 2019, de Friends of Europe. Sitio web

Una entrevista con Seyed Mohammad Marandi, Universidad de Teherán. (2019). Los iraníes no olvidarán la guerra híbrida contra Irán. 2019, de Comunidad Saker Latinoamérica. Sitio web


[1] Esta idea se popularizó entre la comunidad de defensa tras la presentación del ensayo “El conflicto en el siglo XXI”.  Guillem Colom Piella. (2019). La amenaza híbrida: mitos, leyendas y realidades. 2019, de Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos

[2] Reforma de los delitos de terrorismo mediante la ley orgánica 2/2015. Grupo de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional (GESI), Universidad de Granada.

[3] Comunicación conjunta al Parlamento Europeo, al Consejo, al Comité Económico y Social Wuropeo y al Comité de las Regiones. ˝Estrategia de ciberseguridad de la Unión Europea: Un ciberespacio abierto, protegido y seguro˝.

Categorías Global Affairs: Seguridad y defensa Ensayos Global

Vista de Doha, la capital de Catar, desde su Museo Islámico [Pixabay]

▲ Vista de Doha, la capital de Catar, desde su Museo Islámico [Pixabay]

ENSAYOSebastián Bruzzone Martínez

I. Introducción. Catar, emirato del golfo pérsico

En la antigüedad, el territorio era habitado por los cananeos. A partir del siglo VII d.C., el Islam se asentó en la península de Qatar. Como en los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, la piratería y los ataques a los barcos mercantes de potencias que navegaban por las costas del Golfo Pérsico eran frecuentes. Catar estuvo gobernado por la familia Al Khalifa, procedentes de Kuwait, hasta 1868, cuando a petición de los jeques cataríes y con ayuda de los británicos se instauró la dinastía Al Thani. En 1871, el Imperio Otomano ocupó el país, y la dinastía catarí reconoció la autoridad turca. En 1913, Catar consiguió la autonomía; tres años más tarde, el emir Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani firmó un tratado con Reino Unido para implantar un protectorado militar británico en la región, pero manteniendo la monarquía absoluta del emir.

En 1968, Reino Unido retiró su fuerza militar, y los Estados de la Tregua (Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Catar y Bahréin) organizaron la Federación de Emiratos del Golfo Pérsico. Catar, al igual que Bahréin, se independizó de la Federación en 1971, proclamó una Constitución provisional, firmó un tratado de amistad con Reino Unido e ingresó en la Liga Árabe y en la ONU.

La Constitución provisional fue sustituida por la Constitución de 2003 de 150 artículos, sometida a referéndum y apoyada por el 98% de los electores. Entró en vigor como norma fundamental el 9 de abril de 2004. En ella se reconoce el Islam como religión oficial del Estado y la ley Sharia como fuente de Derecho (art. 1); la previsión de adhesión y respeto a los tratados, pactos y acuerdos internacionales firmados por el Emirato de Catar (art. 6); el gobierno hereditario de la familia Al Thani (art. 8); instituciones ejecutivas como el Consejo de Ministros y legislativo-consultivas como el Consejo Al Shoura o Consejo de la Familia Gobernante. Asimismo figuran la posibilidad de la regencia mediante el Concejo fiduciario (arts. 13-16), la institución del primer ministro designado por el emir (art. 72), el emir como jefe de Estado y representante del Estado en Interior, Exterior y Relaciones Internacionales (arts. 64-66), un fondo soberano (Qatar Investment Company; art. 17), instituciones judiciales como los Tribunales locales y el Consejo Judicial Supremo, y su control sobre la inconstitucionalidad de las leyes (137-140)[1], entre otros aspectos.

También se reconocen derechos como la propiedad privada (art. 27), igualdad de derechos y deberes (art. 34), igualdad de las personas ante la ley sin ser discriminadas por razón de sexo, raza, idioma o religión (art. 35), libertad de expresión (art. 47), libertad de prensa (art. 48), imparcialidad de la justicia y tutela judicial efectiva (134-136), entre otros.

Estos derechos reconocidos en la Constitución catarí deben ser consecuentes con la ley islámica, siendo así su aplicación diferente a la que se observa en Europa o Estados Unidos. Por ejemplo, a pesar de que en su artículo 1 está reconocida la democracia como sistema político del Estado, los partidos políticos no existen; y los sindicatos están prohibidos, aunque el derecho de asociación está reconocido por la Constitución. Del mismo modo, el 80% de la población del país es extranjera, siendo estos derechos constitucionales aplicables a los ciudadanos cataríes, que conforman el 20% restante.

Como el resto de los países de la zona, el petróleo ha sido factor transformador de la economía catarí. Hoy en día, Catar tiene un alto nivel de vida y uno de los PIB per cápita más altos del mundo[2], y constituye un destino atractivo para los inversores extranjeros y el turismo de lujo. Sin embargo, en los últimos años Catar está viviendo una crisis diplomática[3] con sus países vecinos del Golfo Pérsico debido a distintos factores que han condenado al país árabe al aislamiento regional.

II. La inestabilidad de la familia al thani

El gobierno del Emirato de Catar ha sufrido una gran inestabilidad a causa de las disputas internas de la familia Al Thani. Peter Salisbury, experto en Oriente Medio de Chatham House, el Real Instituto de Asuntos Internacionales de Londres, habló de los Al Thani en una entrevista para la BBC: “Es una familia que en un inicio (antes del descubrimiento del petróleo) gobernaba un pedazo de tierra, pequeño e insignificante, que a menudo era visto como una pequeña provincia de Arabia Saudita. Pero logró forjarse una posición en esa región de gigantes”. [4]

En 1972, mediante un golpe de Estado, Ahmed Al Thani fue depuesto por su primo Khalifa Al Thani, con el que Catar siguió una política internacional de no intervención y búsqueda de paz interna, y mantuvo una buena relación con Arabia Saudita. Se mantuvo en el poder hasta 1995, cuando su hijo Hamad Al Thani le destronó aprovechando una ausencia del mandatario, de viaje en Suiza. El gobierno saudí vio la actuación como un mal ejemplo para los demás países de la región también gobernados por dinastías familiares. Hamad potenció la exportación de gas natural licuado y petróleo, y desmanteló un supuesto plan de los saudíes de restituir a su padre Khalifa. Los países de la región comenzaron a ver cómo el “pequeño de los hermanos” crecía económica e internacionalmente muy rápido con el nuevo emir y su ministro de Exteriores Hamam Al Thani.

La familia está estructurada en torno a Hamad y su esposa Mozah bint Nasser Al-Missned, quien se ha convertido en un icono de la moda y prestigio femenino de la nobleza internacional, al nivel de Rania de Jordania, Kate Middleton o la reina Letizia (precisamente el matrimonio es cercano a la familia real española).

Hamad abdicó en su hijo Tamim Al Thani en 2013. El ascenso de este fue un soplo de esperanza de corta duración para la comunidad árabe internacional. Tamim adoptó una posición de política internacional muy similar a la de su padre, fortaleciendo el acercamiento y cooperación económica con Irán, y aumentando la tensión con Arabia Saudita, que procedió a cerrar la única frontera terrestre que tiene Catar. Del mismo modo, según una filtración de WikiLeaks en 2009, el jeque Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan acusó a Tamim de pertenecer a los Hermanos Musulmanes. Por otro lado, la rivalidad económica, política, social e incluso personal entre los Al Thani de Catar y los Al Saud de Arabia Saudita se remonta a décadas atrás.

Desde mi punto de vista, la estabilidad y jerarquía familiar en las naciones gobernadas por dinastías es un factor crucial para evitar luchas de poder internas que por consecuencia tienen grandes efectos negativos para la sociedad del país. Cada persona posee ideas políticas, económicas y sociales diferentes que llevan tiempo aplicarlas. Los cambios frecuentes y sin una culminación objetiva terminan siendo un factor terriblemente desestabilizador. En el ámbito internacional, la credibilidad y rigidez política del país puede verse mermada cuando el hijo del emir da un golpe de Estado cuando su padre está de vacaciones. Catar, consciente de ello, en el artículo 148 de su Constitución buscó la seguridad y rigidez legislativa prohibiendo la enmienda de ningún artículo antes de haberse cumplido diez años de su entrada en vigor.

En 1976, Catar reivindicó la soberanía de las islas Hawar, controladas por la familia real de Bahréin, que se convirtieron en un foco de conflicto entre ambas naciones. Sucedió lo mismo con la isla artificial de Fasht Ad Dibal, lo que llevó al ejército de Catar a realizar una incursión en la isla en 1986. Fue abandonada por Catar en un acuerdo de paz con Bahréin.

III. Supuesto apoyo a grupos terroristas

Es la causa principal por la que los Estados vecinos han aislado a Catar. Egipto, Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Arabia Saudita, Bahréin, Libia y Maldivas, entre otros, cortaron relaciones diplomáticas y comerciales con Catar en junio de 2017 por su supuesta financiación y apoyo a los Hermanos Musulmanes, a quienes consideran una organización terrorista. En 2010, WikiLeaks filtró una nota diplomática en la que Estados Unidos calificaba a Catar como el “peor de la región en materia de cooperación para eliminar la financiación de grupos terroristas.”

La hermandad musulmana, cuyo origen se encuentra en 1928 con Hassan Al Bana, en Egipto, es un movimiento político activista e islámico, con principios basados en el nacionalismo, la justicia social y el anticolonialismo. De todos modos, dentro del movimiento existen varias corrientes, algunas más rigurosas que otras. Los fundadores de los Hermanos Musulmanes ven la educación de la sociedad como la herramienta más efectiva para llegar al poder de los Estados. Por ello, los adoctrinadores o evangelizadores del movimiento son los más perseguidos por las autoridades de los países que condenan la pertenencia al grupo. Está dotada de una estructura interna bien definida, cuya cabeza es el guía supremo Murchid, asistido por un órgano ejecutivo, un consejo y una asamblea.

A partir de 1940, se inicia la actividad paramilitar del grupo de forma clandestina con Nizzam Al Khas, cuya intención inicial era lograr la independencia de Egipto y expulsar a los sionistas de Palestina. Realizaron atentados como el asesinato del primer ministro egipcio Mahmoud An Nukrashi. La creación de esta sección especial sentenció de manera definitiva la reputación y el carácter violento de los Hermanos Musulmanes, que continuaron su expansión por el mundo bajo la forma de Tanzim Al Dawli, su estructura internacional.[5]

En la capital de Catar, Doha, se encuentra exiliado Khaled Mashal,[6] ex líder de la organización militante Hamas, y los talibanes de Afganistán poseen una oficina política. Es importante saber que la mayoría de los ciudadanos cataríes son seguidores del wahabismo, una versión puritana del Islam que busca la interpretación literal del Corán y Sunnah, fundada por Mohammad ibn Abd Al Wahhab.

Durante la crisis política posterior a la Primavera Árabe en 2011, Catar apoyó los esfuerzos electorales de los Hermanos Musulmanes en los países del norte de África. El movimiento islamista vio la revolución como un medio útil para acceder a los gobiernos, aprovechando el vacío de poder. En Egipto, Mohamed Mursi, ligado al movimiento, se convirtió en presidente en 2013, aunque fue derrocado por los militares. Emiratos Árabes Unidos y Bahréin calificaron negativamente el apoyo y lo vieron como un elemento islamista desestabilizador. En aquellos países en los que no tuvieron éxito, sus miembros fueron expulsados y muchos se refugiaron en Catar. Mientras tanto, en los países vecinos de la región saltaban las alarmas y seguían atentamente cada movimiento pro-islamista del gobierno catarí.

Del mismo modo, fuentes holandesas y la abogada de Derechos Humanos Liesbeth Zegveld acusaron a Catar de financiar el Frente Al Nusra[7], la rama siria de Al Qaeda que participa en la guerra contra Al Assad, declarada organización terrorista por Estados Unidos y la ONU. La abogada holandesa afirmó en 2018 poseer las pruebas necesarias para demostrar el flujo de dinero catarí hacia Al Nusra a través de empresas basadas en el país y responsabilizar judicialmente a Catar ante el tribunal de La Haya, por las víctimas de la guerra en Siria. Es importante saber que, en 2015, Doha consiguió la liberación 15 soldados libaneses, pero a cambio de la liberación de 13 terroristas detenidos. Otras fuentes aseguran el pago de veinte millones de euros por parte de Catar para la liberar a 45 cascos azules de Fiyi secuestrados por Al Nusra en los Altos del Golán.

Según la BBC, en diciembre de 2015, Kataeb Hezbolá o Movimiento de Resistencia Islámica de Irak, reconocido como organización terrorista por Emiratos Árabes Unidos y Estados Unidos, entre otros, secuestró a un grupo de cataríes que fueron de cacería a Irak.[8] Entre los cazadores del grupo se encontraban dos miembros de la familia real catarí, el primo y el tío de Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani, ministro de Relaciones Exteriores de Catar desde 2016. Tras 16 meses de negociaciones, los secuestradores exigieron al embajador catarí en Irak la escalofriante cifra de mil millones de dólares para liberar a los rehenes. Según funcionarios de Qatar Airways, en abril de 2017 un avión de la compañía voló a Bagdad con el dinero para ser entregado al gobierno iraquí, que actuaría como intermediario entre Hezbolá y Catar. Sin embargo, la empresa nunca ha comentado los hechos. La versión oficial del gobierno catarí es que nunca se pagó a los terroristas y se consiguió la liberación de los rehenes mediante una negociación diplomática conjunta entre Catar e Irak.

La financiación de Catar al grupo armado Hamás de la Franja de Gaza es un hecho real. En noviembre de 2018, según fuentes israelíes, Catar pagó quince millones de dólares en efectivo como parte de un acuerdo con Israel negociado por Egipto y la ONU, que abarcaría un total de noventa millones de dólares fraccionado en varios pagos[9], con intención de buscar la paz y reconciliación entre los partidos políticos Fatah y Hamas, considerado grupo terrorista por Estados Unidos.

IV. La relación catarí con Irán

Catar posee buenas relaciones diplomáticas y comerciales con Irán, mayoritariamente chiita, lo cual no es del agrado del Cuarteto (Egipto, Arabia Saudita, EAU, y Bahréin), mayoritariamente sunita, en especial de Arabia Saudita, con quien mantiene una evidente confrontación –subsidiaria, no directa– por la influencia política y económica predominante en la región pérsica. En 2017, en su última visita a Riad, Donald Trump pidió a los países de la región que aislasen a Irán por la tensión militar y nuclear que vive con Estados Unidos. Catar actúa como intermediario y punto de inflexión entre EEUU e Irán, tratando de abrir la vía del diálogo en relación con las sanciones implantadas por el presidente americano.

Doha y Teherán mantienen una fuerte relación económica en torno a la industria petrolífera y gasística, ya que comparten el yacimiento de gas más grande del mundo, el South Pars-North Dame, mientras que Arabia Saudita y Emiratos Árabes Unidos han seguido la corriente estadounidense en sus programas de política exterior en relación con Irán. Una de las condiciones que el Cuarteto exige a Catar para levantar el bloqueo económico y diplomático es el cese de las relaciones bilaterales con Irán, reinstauradas en 2016, y el establecimiento de una conducta comercial con Irán en conformidad con las sanciones impuestas por Estados Unidos.

V. Cadena de televisión Al Jazeera

Fundada en 1996 por Hamad Al Thani, la cadena Al Jazeera se ha convertido en el medio digital más influyente de Oriente Medio. Se colocó como promotora de la Primavera Árabe y estuvo presente en los climas de violencia de los distintos países. Por ello, ha sido criticada por los antagonistas de Catar por sus posiciones cercanas a los movimientos islamistas, por ejercer de portavoz para los mensajes fundamentalistas de los Hermanos Musulmanes y por constituirse en vehículo de la diplomacia catarí. Su clausura ha sido uno de los requisitos que el Cuarteto ha solicitado a Catar para levantar el bloqueo económico, el tránsito de personas y la apertura del espacio aéreo.

Estados Unidos acusa a la cadena de ser el portavoz de grupos islámicos extremistas desde que el anterior jefe de Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, comenzara a divulgar sus comunicados a través de ella; de poseer carácter antisemita, y de adoptar una posición favorable al grupo armado Hamas en el conflicto palestino-israelí.

En 2003, Arabia Saudita, tras varios intentos fallidos de provocar el cierre de la cadena de televisión catarí, decidió crear una televisión competidora, Al Arabiya TV, iniciando una guerra de desinformación y rivalizando sobre cuál de las dos posee la información más fiable.

VI. La posición de Washington y Londres

Por un lado, Estados Unidos busca tener una relación buena con Catar, pues allí tiene la gran base militar de Al-Udeid, que cuenta con una excelente posición estratégica en el Golfo Pérsico y más de diez mil efectivos. En abril de 2018, el emir catarí visitó a Donald Trump en la Casa Blanca, quien dijo que la relación entre ambos países “funciona extremadamente bien” y considera a Tamim un “gran amigo” y “un gran caballero”. Tamim Al Thani ha resaltado que Catar no tolerará a personas que financian el terrorismo y ha confirmado que Doha cooperará con Washington para poner fin a la financiación de grupos terroristas.

La contradicción es clara: Catar confirma su compromiso en la lucha contra la financiación de grupos terroristas, pero su historial no le avala. Hasta ahora, ha quedado demostrado que el pequeño país ha ayudado a estos grupos de una manera u otra, mediante asilo político y protección de sus miembros, financiación directa o indirecta a través de controvertidas técnicas de negociación, o promoviendo intereses políticos que no han sido del agrado de su gran rival geopolítico, Arabia Saudita.

Estados Unidos es el gran mediador e impedimento del enfrentamiento directo en la tensión entre Arabia Saudita y Catar. Ambos países son miembros de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas y aliados de EEUU. Europa y los presidentes americanos han sido conscientes de que un enfrentamiento directo entre ambos países puede resultar fatal para la región y sus intereses comerciales relacionados con el petróleo y el estrecho de Ormuz.

Por otro lado, el gobierno de Reino Unido se ha mantenido distante a la hora de adoptar una posición en la crisis diplomática de Catar. El emir Tamim Al Thani es dueño del 95% del edificio The Shard, el 8% de la bolsa de valores de Londres y del banco Barclays, así como de apartamentos, acciones y participaciones de empresas en la capital inglesa. Las inversiones cataríes en la capital de Reino Unido rondan un total de sesenta mil millones de dólares.

En 2016, el ex primer ministro británico David Cameron mostró su preocupación sobre el futuro cuando la alcaldía de Londres fue ocupada por Sadiq Khan, musulmán, que ha aparecido en más de una ocasión junto a Sulaiman Gani, un imán que apoya al Estado Islámico y a los Hermanos Musulmanes.[10]

VII. Guerra civil en Yemen

Desde que se inició la intervención militar extranjera en la guerra civil de Yemen en 2015, a petición del presidente yemení Rabbu Mansur Al Hadi, Catar se alineó junto a los Estados del Consejo de Cooperación para los Estados Árabes del Golfo (Bahréin, Kuwait, Omán, Catar, Arabia Saudita y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos), respaldados por Estados Unidos, Reino Unido y Francia, para crear una coalición internacional que ayudara a restituir el poder legítimo de Al Hadi, puesto en jaque desde el golpe de Estado promovido por hutíes y fuerzas leales al ex presidente Ali Abdala Saleh. Sin embargo, Catar ha sido acusado de apoyar de forma clandestina a los rebeldes hutíes[11], por lo que el resto de los países del Consejo miran sus actuaciones con gran cautela.

Actualmente, la guerra civil yemení se ha convertido en la mayor crisis humanitaria desde 1945.[12] El 11 de agosto de 2019, los separatistas del Sur de Yemen, respaldados por Emiratos Árabes Unidos, que en un principio apoya el gobierno de Al Hadi, tomaron la ciudad portuaria de Adén, asaltando el palacio presidencial y las bases militares. El presidente, exiliado en Riad, ha calificado el ataque de sus aliados como un golpe a las instituciones del Estado legítimo, y ha recibido el apoyo directo de Arabia Saudita. Tras unos días de tensión, los separatistas del Movimiento del Sur abandonaron la ciudad.

Emiratos y Arabia Saudita, junto a otros Estados vecinos como Bahréin o Kuwait, de creencia sunita, buscan frenar el avance de los hutíes, que dominan la capital, Saná, y una posible expansión del chiísmo promovido por Irán a través del conflicto de Yemen. Del mismo modo, influye el gran interés geopolítico del Estrecho de Bab el Mandeb, que conecta el Mar Rojo con el Mar Arábigo y resulta una gran alternativa al flujo comercial del Estrecho de Ormuz, frente a las costas de Irán. Dicho interés es compartido con Francia y Estados Unidos, que busca eliminar la presencia de ISIS y Al Qaeda de la región.

Al día siguiente de la toma de Adén, y en plenas celebraciones de Eid Al-Adha, el príncipe heredero de Abu Dhabi, Mohammed bin Zayed, se reunió en La Meca con el rey saudí, Salman bin Abdelaziz, y el príncipe heredero saudí, Mohammed bin Salman, en un aparente esfuerzo de reducir la importancia del suceso, hacer un llamamiento a las partes en conflicto en la ciudad para salvaguardar los intereses de Yemen, y reafirmar la cooperación regional y unidad de intereses entre EAU y Arabia Saudita.[13] El príncipe heredero de Abu Dhabi ha publicado en sus cuentas oficiales de Twitter comentarios y fotografías de la reunión en las que se puede observar una actitud positiva en los rostros de los dirigentes.

A contrario sensu, si la colaboración y entendimiento en la cuestión de Yemen entre ambos países fuesen totales, como afirmaron, no sería necesario crear una imagen aparentemente “ideal” mediante comunicaciones oficiales del gobierno de Abu Dhabi y la publicación de imágenes en redes sociales.

A pesar de que EAU apoya a los separatistas, los últimos hechos han causado una sensación de desconfianza, abriendo la posibilidad de que las milicias del Sur estén desoyendo las directrices emiratíes y comenzando a ejecutar una agenda propia afín a sus intereses particulares. Asimismo, las fuentes extranjeras comienzan a hablar de una guerra civil dentro de una guerra civil. Mientras tanto, Catar se mantiene próximo a Irán y cauto ante la situación del suroeste de la Península Arábiga.


Categorías Global Affairs: Oriente Medio Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos Arabia Saudita y el Golfo Pérsico

Visa aérea de Dubái [Pixabay]

▲ Visa aérea de Dubái [Pixabay]

ENSAYOSebastián Bruzzone Martínez

I. ORIGEN Y FUNDACIÓN DE LOS EMIRATOS ÁRABES UNIDOS

En la antigüedad, el territorio era habitado por tribus árabes, nómadas agricultores, artesanos y comerciantes, acostumbradas a saquear barcos mercantes de potencias europeas que navegaban por sus costas. El Islam se asienta en la cultura local en el siglo VII d.C., y el Islam sunní en el siglo XI d.C. A partir de 1820, Reino Unido firma con los dirigentes o jeques de la zona un tratado de paz para poner fin a la piratería. En 1853, ambas partes firmaron otro acuerdo por el que Reino Unido establecía un protectorado militar en el territorio. Y en 1892, por las pretensiones de Rusia, Francia y Alemania, firmaron un tercer acuerdo que garantizaba el monopolio sobre el comercio y explotación únicamente para los británicos. La zona emiratí pasó de llamarse “Costa de los piratas” a “Estados de la Tregua” o “Trucial States” (los actuales siete Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Catar y Bahréin).

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los aeródromos y puertos del Golfo tomaron un importante papel en el desarrollo del conflicto en favor de Reino Unido. Al término de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en 1945, se creó la Liga de Estados Árabes (Liga Árabe), formada por aquellos que gozaban de cierta independencia colonial. La organización llamó la atención de los Estados de la Tregua.

En 1960, se crea la Organización de Países Exportadores de Petróleo (OPEP), siendo Arabia Saudita, Irán, Irak, Kuwait y Venezuela sus fundadores y con sede en Viena, Austria. Los siete emiratos, que posteriormente formarían los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, se unieron en 1967.

En 1968, Reino Unido retira su fuerza militar de la región, y los Estados de la Tregua organizaron la Federación de Emiratos del Golfo Pérsico, pero fracasó al independizarse Catar y Bahréin. En los años posteriores, se inicia la explotación de los enormes pozos petrolíferos descubiertos años atrás.

En 1971, seis Emiratos se independizaron del imperio británico: Abu Dhabi, Dubái, Sharjah, Ajmán, Umm al Qaywayn y Fujairah, formando la federación de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, con un sistema legal basado en la constitución de 1971. Una vez consolidada, el 12 de junio se unieron a la Liga Árabe. El séptimo emirato, Ras Al-Khaimah se adhirió al año siguiente.

A partir de la crisis del petróleo de 1973, los Emiratos comenzaron a acumular una enorme riqueza, debido a que los miembros de la OPEP decidieron no exportar más petróleo a los países que apoyaron a Israel durante la guerra de Yom Kipur. Actualmente, el 80-85% de la población de EAU es inmigrante. Emiratos Árabes Unidos pasó a ser el tercer productor de petróleo de Oriente Medio, tras Arabia Saudita y Libia.

 

II. SISTEMA POLÍTICO Y LEGAL

Por la constitución de 1971, los Emiratos Árabes Unidos se constituyen en una monarquía federal. Cada Estado es regido por su emir (título nobiliario de los jeques, Sheikh). Cada emirato, posee una gran autonomía política, legislativa, económica y judicial, teniendo cada uno sus consejos ejecutivos, siempre en correspondencia con el gobierno federal. No existen los partidos políticos. Las autoridades federales se componen de:

Consejo Supremo de la Federación o de Emires: es la suprema autoridad del Estado. Está compuesta por los gobernadores de los 7 Emiratos, o quienes los sustituyen en su ausencia. Cada Emirato tiene un voto en las deliberaciones. Establece la política general en las cuestiones confiadas a la Federación, y estudia y establece los objetivos e intereses de la misma.

Presidente y Vicepresidente de la Federación: elegidos por el Consejo Supremo entre sus miembros. El Presidente ejerce, en virtud de la Constitución, competencias importantes como la presidencia del Consejo Supremo; firma de leyes, decretos o resoluciones que ratifica y dicta el Consejo; nombramiento del Presidente del Consejo de Ministros y del Vicepresidente y ministros; aceptación de sus dimisiones o su suspensión de funciones a propuesta del Presidente del Consejo de Ministros. El Vicepresidente ejerce todas las atribuciones presidenciales en su ausencia.

Por tradición, no reconocida en la Constitución emiratí, el jeque de Abu Dhabi es el presidente del país, y el jeque de Dubái es el vicepresidente y Primer Ministro.

Así, actualmente, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, jeque de Abu Dhabi, es el presidente de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos desde 2004; y Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, jeque de Dubái, es el Primer Ministro y vicepresidente desde 2006.

Consejo de ministros: compuesto por el Presidente del Consejo de Ministros, el Vicepresidente y los ministros. Es el órgano ejecutivo de la Federación. Supervisado por el Presidente y Consejo Supremo, su misión es gestionar los asuntos de interior y exterior, que sean de competencia de la Federación en virtud de la Constitución y leyes federales. Posee ciertas prerrogativas como hacer un seguimiento de la aplicación de la política general del Estado Federal en el interior y exterior; proponer proyectos de leyes federales y trasladarlos al Consejo Supremo de la Federación; supervisar la ejecución de las leyes y resoluciones federales, y la aplicación de tratados y convenios internacionales firmados por los Emiratos Árabes Unidos.

Asamblea Federal Nacional: lo que se asemejaría a un Congreso, pero es un órgano únicamente consultivo. Está compuesto por 40 miembros: veinte elegidos por los ciudadanos con derecho a voto, por sufragio censitario, de Emiratos Árabes Unidos a través de elección general, y la otra mitad por los gobernantes de cada Emirato. En diciembre de 2018, el presidente, Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, emitió un decreto que contempla que el cincuenta por ciento de la Asamblea Federal Nacional (o FNC, por sus siglas en inglés) sea ocupado por mujeres, con intención de “empoderar aún más a las mujeres emiratíes y reforzar sus contribuciones al desarrollo del país”. Está distribuido con escaños: Abu Dhabi (8); Dubái (8); Sharjah (6); Ras Al Khaimah (6); Ajmán (4); Umm Al Quwayn (4); y Fujairah (4). A él se elevan los proyectos de ley federales y financieros antes de ser presentados al Presidente de la Federación a fin de que los someta al Consejo Supremo para su ratificación. También, le compete al Gobierno notificar a la Asamblea los pactos y tratados internacionales. La Asamblea estudia y realiza recomendaciones respecto a temas de carácter público.

La Administración de Justicia Federal: el sistema judicial de Emiratos Árabes Unidos está basado en la ley Sharia o ley islámica. El artículo 94 de la Constitución establece que la justicia es la base del Gobierno y reafirma la independencia del poder judicial, estipulando que no existe autoridad ninguna por encima de los jueces, salvo la ley y su propia conciencia en el ejercicio de sus funciones. El sistema de justicia federal se compone de tribunales de primera instancia y tribunales y de apelación (de lo civil, penal, comercial, contencioso-administrativo…)

También, existe un Tribunal Supremo Federal, constituido por un presidente y jueces vocales, con competencias como estudiar la constitucionalidad de las leyes federales y los actos inconstitucionales.

Además, La Administración de Justicia local entenderá de todos aquellos casos judiciales que no competan a la Administración federal. Cuenta con tres niveles: primera instancia, de apelación y casación.

La Constitución prevé la existencia de un Fiscal General, que preside la Fiscalía Pública Federal, encargada de presentar pliegos de cargo en delitos cometidos con arreglo a las disposiciones del Código y Procedimiento penal de la Federación.

Para promover el entendimiento entre administraciones federal y local, desde 2007 se ha constituido un Consejo de Coordinación Judicial, presidido por el Ministro de Justicia y compuesto por presidentes y directores de los órganos judiciales del Estado. [1]

Es importante saber que la Constitución de la Federación posee garantías de refuerzo y protección de los derechos humanos en su capítulo III de las libertades, los derechos y obligaciones públicas, como el principio de igualdad en razón de extracción, lugar de nacimiento, creencia religiosa o posición social, aunque no menciona género, y justicia social (art. 25); la libertad de los ciudadanos (art. 26); la libertad de opinión y garantía de los medios para expresarla (art. 30); libertad de circulación y de residencia (art. 29); libertad religiosa (art.32); derecho a la privacidad (art. 31 y 36); derechos de la familia (art. 15); derecho a previsión social y a la seguridad social (art. 16); derecho a la educación (art. 17); derecho a la atención sanitaria (art. 19); derecho al trabajo (art. 20); derecho de asociación y de constitución de asociaciones (art. 33); derecho a la propiedad (art. 21); y derecho de queja y derecho a litigar ante los tribunales (art. 41).[2]

A simple vista, parece que estos derechos y garantías que recoge la Constitución emiratí de 1971 son semejantes a los que recogería una Constitución europea y occidental normal. Sin embargo, son matizables y no tan efectivos en la práctica. Por un lado, porque la mayoría de ellos incluyen remisiones a la ley concreta y aplicable, diciendo “…en los límites que marca la ley; en conformidad con las disposiciones que marca la ley; o en los casos en que así lo disponga la ley”. De esta forma, el legislador se encargará de que estos derechos sean consecuentes y compatibles con la Ley Sharia o islámica, o con los intereses políticos, en su caso.

Por otro lado, estos derechos y garantías protegen de manera completa a los ciudadanos emiratíes, nacionales. Teniendo en cuenta, que el 80-85% de la población es extranjera, se estaría protegiendo de forma íntegramente constitucional a un 15% de la población total del Estado. Por la Ley Federal Nº28/2005 relativa al estatuto personal, la ley se aplica a todos los ciudadanos del Estado de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos siempre que no existan, para los no musulmanes de entre ellos, disposiciones especiales específicas para su confesión o religión. Igualmente, se aplican sus disposiciones a los no nacionales cuando no estén obligados a cumplir la legislación de su propio país.

Entre salvaguardias jurídicas destacan el Código Penal Federal (Ley Nº3/1987); el Código de Procedimiento Penal (Ley Nº 35/1992); Ley Federal sobre la regulación de las instituciones de reforma penitenciaria (Nº43/1992); Ley Federal sobre regulación de las relaciones laborales (Nº8/1980); Ley Federal relativa a la lucha contra la trata de personas (Nº 51/2006); Ley Federal relativa al estatuto personal (Nº28/2005); Ley Federal relativa a los menores delincuentes y carentes de hogar (Nº9/1976); Ley Federal sobre publicaciones y edición (Nº15/1980); Ley Federal sobre regulación de órganos humanos  (Nº15/1993); Ley Federal relativa a las asociaciones declaradas de interés público (Nº2/2008); Ley Federal sobre previsión social (Nº2/2001); Ley Federal sobre pensiones y seguros sociales (Nº7/1999); Ley Federal de protección y desarrollo del medio ambiente (Nº24/1999); y Ley Federal relativa a los derechos de las personas con necesidades especiales (Nº29/2006).

El servicio militar de 9 meses es obligatorio para los hombres universitarios entre 18 y 30 años, y de dos años para los que no tienen estudios superiores. Para las mujeres es opcional y sometido al acuerdo de su tutor. Aunque el país no es miembro de la OTAN, los Emiratos han decidido unirse a la coalición Iniciativa de Cooperación de Estambul (ICI), y prestar auxilio armamentístico en la Guerra contra el Estado Islámico.

En cuanto a las garantías de los tratados internacionales y la cooperación internacional, los Emiratos Árabes Unidos han realizado un gran esfuerzo por incluir en su Constitución leyes y principios amparados por la Carta de las Naciones Unidas y la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos, siendo miembro de la ONU y adhiriéndose a sus tratados: Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial (1974), Convención de Derechos del Niño (1997), Convención de las Naciones Unidas contra la Delincuencia Organizada Transnacional (2007), Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación de la mujer (2004); Convención de las Naciones Unidas contra la Corrupción (2006), entre otros.

También han ratificado el Estatuto de Roma de la Corte Penal Internacional, la Carta Árabe de Derechos Humanos, y convenios de organización del Trabajo. Es miembro de la OMS, OIT, FAO, UNESCO, UNICEF, OMPI, Banco Mundial y FMI. También, están vinculados por acuerdos de cooperación con más de 28 organizaciones internacionales de las Naciones Unidas llevando a cabo tareas de asesoramiento y de carácter técnico y ministerial.

Son miembros de la Liga Árabe y de la Organización de la Conferencia Islámica, reforzando y promoviendo la labor árabe en sus actividades y programas regionales.

La policía emiratí mantiene el orden público y la seguridad del Estado. El Ministerio del Interior pone los derechos humanos al frente de sus prioridades, centrándose en la justicia, igualdad, imparcialidad y protección. Los integrantes del cuerpo policial deben comprometerse a cumplir 33 normas conducta antes de tomar posesión de su puesto. El Ministerio del Interior ofrece dependencias administrativas al ciudadano para supervisar la actividad policial y adoptar las medidas necesarias. Sin embargo, existe una cierta desconfianza de los extranjeros hacia la policía. La mayor parte de denuncias proviene de ciudadanos emiratíes.

El Ministerio del Interior debe proporcionar a las misiones diplomáticas y consulares listas que incluyan datos sobre sus nacionales internados en instituciones penitenciarias.

 

III. SISTEMA SOCIAL

El gobierno emiratí ha promovido sociedades civiles e instituciones nacionales como la asociación de los Emiratos para los Derechos Humanos (en virtud de la Ley Federal Nº 6/1974), la Federación General de las Mujeres, Asociación de Juristas, Asociación de Sociólogos, Asociación de Periodistas, Dirección General de Protección de los Derechos Humanos adscrita a la Jefatura General de la Policía de Dubái, Fundación Benéfica de Dubái para la Atención a la Mujer y el Niño, Comisión Nacional de Lucha contra la Trata de Personas, centro de Apoyo Social de la Dirección General de la Policía de Abu Dhabi, Institución Zayed de Obras Benéficas, Media Luna Roja de los Emiratos, Institución de Desarrollo Familiar, y la Fundación Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum de Obras Benéficas y Humanitarias, o el Fondo para el Matrimonio, entre muchas otras.

Es importante destacar que el desarrollo de la participación política está siguiendo un proceso progresivo. Hasta la fecha, existen unas elecciones completas y generales para designar a la mitad de los miembros de la Asamblea Federal Nacional, con sufragio censitario, para ciudadanos emiratíes y mediante una publicación de listas.

También, la importancia de la mujer en la sociedad emiratí está creciendo gracias a las medidas legislativas y legales adoptadas por el gobierno para potenciar el papel de la mujer, mediante la membresía del Comité de Desarrollo Social del Consejo Económico y Social, que permitan otorgar oportunidades a la mujer que participe de forma activa en el desarrollo sostenible, y la integración de la mujer en sectores gubernamentales y privado-empresarial (siendo mujeres el 22,5% de la Asamblea, 2006; se espera que a partir de 2019 sea el 50% por decreto)[3], y promoviendo el alfabetismo femenino hasta igualarlo con el masculino. Sin embargo, a pesar de ser signatarios de la Convención sobre la eliminación de todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer, en la práctica sufren discriminaciones en los trámites matrimoniales y de divorcio. Afortunadamente, se abolió la legislación emiratí que preveía el maltrato de las mujeres e hijos menores por parte del marido o padre siempre que la agresión no excediera los límites admitidos por la ley islámica. También, una vez contraído matrimonio, las mujeres deben prestar obediencia a sus maridos y ser autorizadas por ellos para ocupar un puesto laboral. Asimismo, está prohibida, bajo penas de cárcel, la convivencia entre hombres y mujeres no casados, y las relaciones sexuales fuera del matrimonio. La poligamia está presente incluso en la familia real.

Como en el resto de los países árabes, la homosexualidad está considerada un delito grave y castigada con multas, prisión y deportación en el caso de extranjeros, aunque su aplicación es muy escasa.

Los medios de comunicación juegan un rol importante en la sociedad emiratí. Están supervisados por el Consejo Nacional de Medios de Comunicación, que actúa en gran medida como órgano censor. Han alcanzado un alto nivel técnico y profesional en el sector periodístico, acogiendo en la Dubai Media City a más de mil empresas especializadas. Sin embargo, el periodismo está controlado mediante la Ley Federal sobre Prensa y Publicaciones de 1980, y Carta de Honor y la Moral de la Profesión Periodística, que han firmado los jefes de redacción. Por ejemplo, algunas noticias que pueden ser desfavorables para el Islam o el gobierno nunca serían publicadas en los periódicos nacionales, pero sí en los extranjeros (caso de Haya de Jordania). Desde 2007, mediante un decreto del Consejo de Ministros, estaba prohibido el encarcelamiento de periodistas en caso de que cometiesen errores durante el ejercicio de sus funciones profesionales. Sin embargo, dejó de aplicarse con la entrada en vigor de la Ley contra cibercriminalidad adoptada en 2012.

El gobierno se está esforzando en cumplir una mejora en las condiciones de trabajo, pues los Emiratos Árabes Unidos tienen la convicción de que el ser humano tiene derecho a disfrutar de condiciones de vida adecuadas (vivienda, horarios, medios, tribunales laborales, seguro médico, garantías protectoras en conflictos laborales a nivel cooperativo internacional…) Sin embargo, sigue vigente el sistema “Sponsor” o “Kafala”, mediante el cual un empleador ejerce el patrocinio de sus empleados. Así, existen casos en los que el sponsor retiene los pasaportes de sus empleados durante la vigencia del contrato, lo cual es ilegal, pero nunca han sido investigados y castigados por el gobierno (caso del proyecto de construcción de Saadiyat Island), a pesar de ser firmante de convenios sobre Trabajo de la ONU.

El último Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano correspondiente al año 2018, posiciona a los Emiratos Árabes Unidos en el puesto 34º de un total de 189 países. España está en el puesto 26º. El Estado ha asegurado la educación gratuita y de calidad hasta la etapa universitaria de todos los ciudadanos emiratíes, y la integración de las personas discapacitadas. Los centros universitarios y de educación superior han sido positivamente fomentados por el gobierno, como la Universidad de Emiratos Árabes Unidos, la Universidad de Zayed, o la Universidad de Nueva York en Abu Dhabi. La atención sanitaria ha mejorado considerablemente con la construcción de hospitales y clínicas, descendiendo las tasas de mortalidad y aumentando la esperanza de vida, situándose en 77.6 años (2016). El Estado destina dinero de las arcas públicas a la atención social de los sectores de población emiratí más desfavorecidos y a los mayores, viudas, huérfanos o discapacitados. También, ha procurado que los ciudadanos posean una vivienda digna, a través de instancias gubernamentales como el Ministerio de Obras Públicas, el Programa de Vivienda Zayed que ofrece préstamos hipotecarios sin intereses, Organismo de Préstamo Hipotecario de Abu Dhabi, la institución Mohammed bin Rashid para la vivienda que otorga préstamos, u el Organismo de Obras Públicas de Sharjah.

En cuanto a religión, aproximadamente el 75% de la población es de confesión musulmana. El Islam es la confesión oficial de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. El gobierno sigue una política tolerante hacia otras religiones, y prohíbe que los no musulmanes interfieran en la educación islámica. Está prohibida la evangelización de otras religiones, y la práctica de las mismas debe realizarse en los lugares autorizados para ello.

El 3 de febrero de 2019, como inicio del Año de la Tolerancia, el Papa Francisco fue recibido con los máximos honores en Abu Dhabi por el príncipe heredero Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, el vicepresidente y emir de Dubái Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum, y Ahmed al Tayyeb, Gran Imán de la Universidad de Al-Azhar y principal referente teológico islámico, siendo la primera vez que la cabeza de la Iglesia Católica pisaba la Península Arábiga. Del mismo modo, el Papa ofició una misa multitudinaria en Zayed Sport City ante 150.000 personas, diciendo en su homilía: “seamos un oasis de paz”. El acontecimiento fue calificado por Mike Pompeo, secretario de Estado de los Estados Unidos, como “un momento histórico para la libertad religiosa”.

Existen Proyectos para el desarrollo de regiones remotas, que buscan modernizar las infraestructuras y servicios de aquellas zonas del Estado más alejadas de los núcleos de población. También, en virtud de la Ley Federal Nº47/1992, fue creado el Fondo para el Matrimonio, cuyo objetivo es alentar el matrimonio entre ciudadanos y ciudadanas y promover la familia, que según el gobierno es la unidad básica y pilar fundamental de la sociedad, ofreciendo subsidios financieros a aquellos ciudadanos con recursos limitados a fin de ayudarles a afrontar los gastos de boda y contribuir a lograr la estabilidad familiar de la sociedad.

 

IV. ECONOMÍA

Desde 1973, los Emiratos Árabes Unidos han sufrido una enorme transformación y modernización gracias a la explotación del petróleo, que representó el 80% del PIB en aquella época. En los últimos años, con el conocimiento de que en menos de 40 años el petróleo se acabará, el gobierno ha diversificado su economía hacia los servicios financieros, el turismo, comercio, transporte y la infraestructura, haciendo que el petróleo y el gas constituyan solamente un 20% del PIB nacional.

Abu Dhabi cuenta con el 90% de las reservas de petróleo y gas, seguido de Dubái, y en pequeñas cantidades en Sharjah y Ras Al Khaimah. La política petrolera del país se lleva a cabo a través del Consejo Supremo del Petróleo y la Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC). Las principales petroleras extranjeras operantes en el país son BP, Shell, ExxonMobil, Total, Petrofac o Partex, y la española CEPSA, de la cual el fondo soberano emiratí Mubadala es propietaria del 80% de la empresa.

La capacidad prestataria de las sociedades financieras se vio fuertemente afectada de forma negativa durante la crisis económica de 2008. La entrada de grandes capitales privados extranjeros se paralizó, al mismo tiempo que la inversión en los sectores de propiedad y construcción. La caída de los valores de propiedad forzó a restringir la liquidez. En 2009, las empresas locales buscaban acuerdos de moratoria con sus acreedores sobre una deuda de 26 billones de dólares. El gobierno de Abu Dhabi aportó un rescate de 5 billones para tranquilizar a los inversores internacionales.

El turismo y la infraestructura es un éxito para el país, especialmente en Dubái.[4] La construcción de atracciones turísticas de lujo como las Palm Islands y el Burj al-Arab, y el buen clima en la mayor parte del año, ha atraído a occidentales y personas de todo el mundo. Según el gobierno emiratí, la industria turística genera más dinero que el petróleo actualmente. Se están realizando grandes inversiones en energías renovables, sobre todo a través de Masdar, la empresa gubernamental, que tiene el proyecto Masdar City iniciado, la creación de una ciudad alimentada únicamente con energías renovables.

 

V. DINASTÍAS Y FAMILIAS REALES. LA DINASTÍA AL NAHYAN

Los Emiratos Árabes Unidos están formados por siete Emiratos y gobernados por seis familias:

Abu Dhabi: por la familia Al Nahyan (Casa Al Falahi)

Dubái: por la familia Al Maktum (Casa al Falasi)

Sharjah y Ras Al Khaimah: por la familia Al Qassimi

Ajman: por la familia Al Nuaimi

Umm Al Quwain: por la familia Al Mualla

Fujairah: por la familia Al Sharqi

Es importante conocer la terminología utilizada en el árbol genealógico de las familias reales emiratíes: “Sheikh” significa jeque, y un emir es título nobiliario que se les atribuye a los jeques. En la composición de los nombres, en primer lugar, se coloca el nombre propio del descendiente, seguido del infijo “bin” que significa “de”, más el nombre propio de su padre, y el apellido de la familia. El infijo es “bint” para las mujeres.

Por ejemplo: Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan es el padre de Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan.

Es frecuente que se celebren matrimonios entre las familias gobernantes de los distintos Emiratos, entrelazando dinastías, pero siempre prevalecerá el apellido del marido sobre el de la mujer en el nombre de los hijos. Al contrario de las grandes monarquías europeas en las que el reinado se transmite de padres a hijos, en las familias emiratíes el poder se transmite primero entre hermanos, por nombramiento, y como segundo recurso, a los hijos. Estos puestos de poder deben ser ratificados por el Consejo Supremo.

La familia Al Nahyan de Abu Dhabi es una rama de la Casa Al Falahi. Ésta, es una casa real que pertenece a Bani Yas y está relacionada con la Casa Al Falasi a la que pertenece la familia Al Maktoum de Dubái. Se sabe que Bani Yas es una confederación tribal muy antigua de la región de Liwa Oasis. Existen pocos datos históricos sobre su origen exacto. La familia real Al Nahyan es increíblemente grande, ya que cada uno de los hermanos ha tenido varios hijos y con distintas mujeres. Los más importantes y recientes gobernadores de Abu Dhabi serían aquellos que han estado en el poder desde 1971, cuando los Emiratos Árabes Unidos se consolidaron como país, dejando de ser un Estado de la Tregua y protectorado británico. Son:

Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan (1918-2004): fue gobernador de Abu Dhabi desde 1966 hasta su muerte. Colaboró cercanamente con el imperio británico para mantener la integridad del territorio frente a las pretensiones expansivas de Arabia Saudita. Se le considera el Padre de la Nación y fundador de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, junto a su homólogo Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum de Dubái. Ambos se comprometieron a formar una Federación junto a otros gobernantes una vez se realizase la retirada militar británica. Fue el primer presidente de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, y fue reelegido cuatro veces: 1976, 1981, 1986 y 1991. Zayed se caracterizó por tener un carácter comprensivo, pacífico y de unión con los emiratos vecinos, caritativo en cuanto a donaciones, relativamente liberal y permisivo con los medios privados. Fue considerado uno de los hombres más ricos del mundo por la revista Forbes, con un patrimonio de veinte mil millones de dólares.

Murió a los 86 años y enterrado en la Gran Mezquita Sheikh Zayed de Abu Dhabi. Le sustituyó en el cargo su hijo primogénito Khalifa como gobernador y ratificado presidente de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos por el Consejo Supremo.

Tuvo seis mujeres: Hassa bint Mohammed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, Sheikha bint Madhad Al Mashghouni, Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi, Mouza bint Suhail bin Awaidah Al Khaili, Ayesha bint Ali Al Darmaki, Amna bint Salah bin Buduwa Al Darmaki, y Shamsa bint Mohammed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan; y treinta hijos, de los cuales algunos son los siguientes:

Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1948-presente): hijo mayor del anterior, cuya madre es Hassa bint Mohammed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, es el actual gobernador de Abu Dhabi y presidente de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Su esposa es Shamsa bint Suhail Al Mazrouei, con la que tiene ocho hijos. También ocupa otros cargos: Supremo Comandante de las Fuerzas Armadas, presidente del Consejo Supremo del Petróleo, y presidente de la autoridad de inversiones de Abu Dhabi. Fue educado en la Real Academia Militar de Sandhurst de Reino Unido. Anteriormente, fue nombrado príncipe heredero de Abu Dhabi; Jefe del Departamento de Defensa de Abu Dhabi, que se convertiría en las Fuerzas Armadas de los Emiratos; Primer ministro, jefe del Gabinete de Abu Dhabi, Ministro de Defensa y Finanzas; segundo Viceprimer Ministro de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos y presidente del Consejo Ejecutivo de Abu Dhabi. El Burj Khalifa de Dubái se llama así por él, ya que ingresó el dinero necesario para concluir su construcción. Intervino militarmente en Libia enviando a la Fuerza Aérea junto con la OTAN, y prometió el apoyo al levantamiento democrático en Bahréin en 2011.

Por una filtración de WikiLeaks, el embajador estadounidense lo califica como “personaje distante y poco carismático”. Ha sido criticado por su carácter derrochador (compra del yate Azzam, escándalo de la construcción del palacio y compra de territorios en las islas Seychelles, los Papeles de Panamá y la revelación de propiedades en Londres y empresas pantalla…)

En 2014, según la versión oficial, Khalifa sufrió un derrame cerebral y fue operado quirúrgicamente. Según el gobierno, se encuentra estable, pero prácticamente ha desaparecido de la imagen pública.

Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1961-presente): hermano de Khalifa, pero cuya madre es Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi. Es el príncipe heredero de Abu Dhabi, subcomandante supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas, y encomendado para la ejecución de asuntos presidenciales, recepciones de dignatarios extranjeros y decisiones políticas debido al mal estado de salud del Presidente. También, como Khalifa, fue educado en la Real Academia Militar de Sandhurst. Ha sido Oficial de la Guardia Presidencial y piloto en la Fuerza Aérea. Está casado con Salama bint Hamdan Al Nahyan, y tiene nueve hijos.

Se ha caracterizado por su política exterior activista y en contra del extremismo islamista, y carácter caritativo (colaboración con la Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation para vacunas en Afganistán y Pakistán). Gobiernos internacionales como Francia, Singapur y Estados Unidos han invitado a Mohammed a distintos eventos y diálogos bilaterales. Incluso se ha reunido con el papa Francisco dos veces (Roma, 2016; Abu Dhabi, 2019), promoviendo el Año de la Tolerancia.

En materia económica, es el presidente del fondo soberano Mubadala y Jefe del Consejo de Abu Dhabi para el Desarrollo Económico. Ha aprobado proyectos billonarios de estimulación económica para la modernización del país en el sector energético e infraestructuras.

También, ha promovido el empoderamiento femenino, dando la bienvenida a una delegación de mujeres oficiales del Programa Militar y de Mantenimiento de la Paz para Mujeres Árabes, que se están preparando para las operaciones de Paz de las Naciones Unidas. Ha alentado la presencia de mujeres en los servicios públicos, y se ha comprometido a reunirse regularmente con las representantes femeninas de instituciones del país.

Sultan bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1955-presente): segundo hijo de Zayed. Él tiene seis hijos. Es hijo de Shamsa bint Mohammed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan. Fue educado en la escuela de Millfield y en la academia militar de Sandhurst como sus dos anteriores hermanos. Es el tercer viceprimer ministro de Emiratos Árabes Unidos, miembro del Consejo Supremo del Petróleo y miembro de la Autoridad de Inversiones de Abu Dhabi.

Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1963-presente): quinto hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi. Está casado con Shamsa bint Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Nahyan. Fue educado en la Academia militar de Sandhurst. Ocupó el cargo de viceprimer ministro y ministro de Estado para Asuntos Exteriores hasta 2009. Actualmente, es el representante del emir en la región occidental de Abu Dhabi. Es licenciado en Ciencias Políticas y Administración de Empresas por la Universidad de Emiratos Árabes Unidos.

Nahyan bin Mubarak al Nahyan (1951-presente): hijo de Mubarak bin Mohammed Al Nahyan. Es el actual dirigente del Ministerio de la Tolerancia de Emiratos Árabes Unidos desde 2017. De 2016 a 2017, fue ministro de Cultura y Desarrollo del Conocimiento. También, dedicó años de su vida a la creación de centros de educación superior como la Universidad de Emiratos Árabes Unidos (1983-2013), Escuela Superior de Tecnología (1988-2013), y Universidad de Zayed (1998-2013). También, es el presidente de Warid Telecom International, una empresa de Telecomunicaciones, y el presidente del grupo bancario Abu Dhabi, Union National Bank y United Bank Limited, entre otras empresas.

Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1972-presente): Noveno hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi. Está casado con Al Yazia bint Saif bin Mohammed Al Nahyan, con la que tiene cinco hijos. Ocupa el cargo de ministro de Asuntos Exteriores y Cooperación Internacional de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos desde 2006. Es licenciado en Ciencias Políticas por la Universidad de Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Durante su mandato, los Emiratos han vivido una gran expansión en sus relaciones diplomáticas con países de América del Sur, Pacífico Sur, África y Asia, y una consolidación con los países occidentales. Es miembro del Consejo de Seguridad Nacional del país, Vicepresidente del Comité Permanente de Fronteras, Presidente del Consejo Nacional de Medios de Comunicación, Presidente de la Junta de Directores de la Fundación de los Emiratos para el Desarrollo de la Juventud, Vicepresidente de la Junta de Directores del Fondo de Abu Dhabi para el Desarrollo y Miembro de la Junta del Colegio de Defensa Nacional. Fue ministro de Información y Cultura de 1997 a 2006, y presidente de Emirates Media Incorporated.

Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1970-presente): octavo hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi. Está casado con dos mujeres, Alia bint Mohammed bin Butti Al Hamed, y Manal bint Mohammed Al Maktoum, con las que tiene seis hijos en total. Ocupa los cargos de viceprimer ministro y Ministro de Asuntos Presidenciales de Emiratos Árabes Unidos desde 2009. Es presidente del Consejo Ministerial de Servicios, de la Autoridad de Inversiones de los Emiratos y de la Autoridad de Carreras de los Emiratos. Es miembro del Consejo Supremo del Petróleo y del Consejo de Inversiones de Abu Dhabi. Se educó en Santa Barbara Community College de Estados Unidos, y se licenció en Asuntos Internacionales por la Universidad de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Preside el Centro Nacional de Documentación e Investigación y el Fondo de Abu Dhabi para el Desarrollo. Fue presidente del First Gulf Bank hasta 2006.

Tiene una visión empresarial desarrollada. Es el propietario del equipo de fútbol inglés Manchester City, y co-propietario del New York City de la MLS, liga de fútbol profesional estadounidense. Es miembro de la junta directiva de la Autoridad de Inversiones de Abu Dhabi, tiene una participación del 32% en Virgin Galactic, una participación del 9’1% en Daimler, y es propietario de Abu Dhabi Media Investment Corporation, por la cual es propietario del periódico inglés The National.

Saif bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1968-presente): decimosegundo hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Mouza bint Suhail Al Khaili. ocupa el cargo de viceprimer ministro desde 2009, y Ministro del Interior desde 2004. Su función es velar por la protección interior y seguridad nacional de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Es graduado en Ciencias Políticas por la Universidad de Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Fue Director General de la policía de Abu Dhabi en 1995, y subsecretario del Ministerio del Interior en 1997, hasta su nombramiento como ministro.

Hazza bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1965-presente): quinto hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Fatima bint Mubarak Al Ketbi. Está casado con Mozah bint Mohammed bin Butti Al Hamed, con la que tiene cinco hijos. Ocupa el puesto de Ministro de la Seguridad Nacional de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Vicepresidente del Consejo Ejecutivo del Emirato de Abu Dhabi y Presidente de la Autoridad de Identidad de los Emiratos.

Nasser bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1967-2008): hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Amna bint Salah Al Badi. Fue presidente del Departamento de Planificación y Economía de Abu Dhabi, y fue oficial de la seguridad real. Según la versión oficial, murió a los 41 años cuando el helicóptero en el que viajaba con sus amigos se estrelló en las costas de Abu Dhabi. Fue enterrado en la mezquita Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed, y se declararon tres días de luto en todos los Emiratos Árabes Unidos.

Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1970-presente): hijo de Zayed, cuya madre es Amna bint Salah Al Badi. Es un prestigioso promotor inmobiliario de la ciudad de Dubái, pero no ocupa ningún cargo político en el gobierno de Emiratos. Protagonizó un caso en el que, supuestamente, en un vídeo filtrado, él mismo torturaba a dos palestinos que eran sus socios comerciales. El juzgado emiratí declaró en sentencia firme que Issa era inocente por ser víctima de una conspiración y condenó a los palestinos a cinco años de privación de libertad por consumo de drogas, grabación, publicación y chantaje. Observadores internacionales criticaron duramente el sistema judicial emiratí y pidieron una revisión del código penal del país.

Desde mi punto de vista, y con la experiencia de haber vivido en el país, los Emiratos Árabes Unidos son un país muy desconocido para la juventud española y que tiene unas oportunidades profesionales increíbles por la demanda de trabajo extranjera, una calidad de vida muy alta a un precio asequible, pues los sueldos son bastante altos, y una Administración e instituciones fuertes y modernizadas. El choque cultural no es muy grande, pues el Estado se asegura de evadir situaciones de discriminación, a diferencia de otros países árabes. Puedo decir con total convicción que la tolerancia cultural es real. Sin embargo, los extranjeros deben tener en cuenta que no es un país occidental, y que se recomienda respetar las costumbres de la nación respecto a la vestimenta, lugares sacros y actuaciones en público, y conocer la Ley básica emiratí.

Categorías Global Affairs: Oriente Medio Orden mundial, diplomacia y gobernanza Ensayos Arabia Saudita y el Golfo Pérsico